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SF 259 .ft 

.B27 CREAM RAISING 



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CENTRIFUGAL 

AND OTHER SYST.EMS 



COMPARED AND EXPLAINED 



WITH A FULL DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT REQUIRED AND HOW TO 

USE IT, AND A CHAPTER ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF ICE HOUSES, 

ROOMS AND CELLARS FOR COLD STORAGE 



Illustrated with 55 engravings 

by S. UL. B^E/E/E 

Professor of Dairying Guelph Agricultural College, Ont. 




Printed at LE TRAVAILLEUR Office, 
Worcester Mass. 

iS^q — i * — && 











Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2010 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 















http://www.archive.org/details/creamraisingbyceOObarr 




OF 8T. LAMBERT. 

This extraordinary Jersey cow, owned by Mr V. E. Fuller, 
of Hamilton, Ontario, gave 36 lbs. and 12 ounces of butter in 
7 days, and 867 lbs. and 14 ounces in 11 months and five 
days. 



CREAM RAISING 

1SY THE 

CENTRIFUGAL 

AND OTHER SYSTEMS 



COMPARED AND EXPLAINED 



WITH A FULL DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT REQUIRED AND HOW TO 

USE IT, AND A CHAPTER ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF ICE HOUSES, 

ROOMS AND CELLARS FOR COLD STORAGE 



Illustrated with 55 engravings 

iBir s. nun. :b.^:r,:r,:e 

Professor of Dairying Guelph Agricultural College, Out. 




Printed at LE TRAVAILLEUR Office, 

Worcester Mass. 



\ 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1885, by Ferdinand 
Gagnon, in the oilice of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



Cr«» 



INTRODUCTION. 



This pamphlet has been written to meet not only the 
requirements of dairy men, but also of the general public. 
For this reason we have been at considerable pains to 
make it as clear and comprehensive as possible. 

There is no doubt that with the new and improved 
methods, coming into general use, the butter industry is 
destined to great development. Capitalists and dairy 
investors will find it to their advantage to have a book 
by means of which it is possible to form an accurate 
idea of the present state of the industry. From the 
numerous tables given in this work, it will be easy to 
determine the different yields of different methods, and 
ascertain which to use in given circumstances. 

This work is divided into five parts. 

The first part defines and classifies the different 
methods. It contains a description of the plant necessa rj 
for each, with instructions how to use it. — The second 
compares the different systems and contains remarks on 
their relative value. — The third is devoted to the cen- 
trifugal and contains a mass of practical information 
difficult to obtain elsewhere. — The fourth treats of what 
to do with the skim milk. — The fifth treats of the con- 
struction of ice houses, rooms, and cellars for cold 
storage and freezers, and of the storing and keerjing of 
ice or snow. 

We cannot conclude without offering our sincere- 
thanks to Messrs. H. C. Petersen & Co. of Copenhagen, 
J. D. Fredericksen of Littlefalls, N. Y., Henry Wade, 
Secretary of the Agricultural Bureau of Ontario, the 
Knickerbocker Ice Co. of Philadelphia and W. G-. 
Walton of Hamilton, Ont. who have kindly placed the 
material collected by them at our disposal. 



Cream Raising by the Centrifugal and other systems, 



MILK. 

" Milk is a fluid in which float about numbers of 
globules : these consist of fat. "When milk is suffered to 
remain at rest some hours, a large proportion of the fat 
globules collect at the surface into a layer of cream/' (1) 

CREAM. 

The cream or butter globules come to the surface ? 
because they are lighter than the watery fluid in which 
they float. 

HEAVY MILK, 

Heavy milk is milk in which the cream rises but very 
slowly, and in which a large proportion of the cream 
does not come to the surface at all. The cream from 
such milk is very thin, and there is no distinctly marked 
line between it and the skim milk. It is not to be wond- 
ered at, that such skim milk, does not look blue, there 
is often a larger quantity of cream mixed with it than 
has risen to the surface. In some cases as much as 75 o/o 
of the cream of heavy milk remains in the skim milk. 

Heavy milk is generally obtained from cows that have 
calved since a long time, or that are running dry through 
being in calf, or through other causes. 

Milk always becomes " heavy " though in a lesser 
degree, when it is allowed to cool before setting. 

WHOLE MILK. 

This is milk from which the cream has not been ex- 
tracted. 

(1; Fowne's Elementary Chemistry. 



SKIMMING-. 

In every 100 lbs. of milk there is on average 3f lbs. of 
butter fat. (1) The great art of skimming consists in 
being able to extract from the milk all the butter fat, or 
any proportion desired, and this without injuring its 
quality in the least. 

METHODS. 

Many different methods are recommended by dairy- 
men, but all can be classified under two distinct heads : 
lo. The natural ; 2o. The mechanical. 

THE NATURAL PROCESS. 

This process consists in employing changes of tempera- 
ture, to hasten and complete the separation of cream from 
milk. It is an admitted fact, that the cream rises while 
the temperature of the milk is falling. 

The greater the fell I of temperature, the greater the 
quantity of cream which rises. 

The one point upon which dairymen are unanimous, 
is that milk should be set as soon as possible after the 
milking (that is when it is still at blood heat), and then 
cooled down. There is a difference of opinion as to the 
temperature to which it should be cooled, but the best 
practical butter makers agree, that it should be just short 
ot the freezing point, 32o Fahrt. 

RULE. 

Set the milk as soon after milking as possible, and 
cool it down just short of 32 c Fahrt. 

(I) We say butter fat designe lly. If we were to say cream, it would 
be necessary to make a distinction between thick and thin cream. 



REQUISITES OF THE NATURAL METHOD OF 
SKIMMING, 

The requisites of this method are : 

lo. Milk vessels. 

2o. Refrigerating tanks. 

3o. Ice, or ordinary spring or well water. 

DESCRIPTION OF THESE REQUISITES. 
1ST MILK VESSELS. 

They are divided into two classes : shallow pans, and 
deep cans. 

SHALLOW PANS. 

The shallow pans, as the name indicates, are shallow 
vessels from 4 to 6 inches deep. They are made oi any 
length and breadth to suit the requirements of the dairy- 
man. 

The newest of these are, in reality, double pans be- 
tween which water is constantly allowed to flow. 

DEEP CANS. 

There are many good utensils of this form in the 
market, but we recommend a round or oval shaped deep 
can, such as can be had at a low price, at any tin shop, 
and upon which there is no royalty whatever to be paid. 
They are of different sizes. 



DIMENSIONS OF DEEP CANS GENERALLY USED. 





OVAL SHAPED. 

Table No. 1. 




Contents. 


Height, 


Length, 


Width. 


40 lbs. 
50 " 
60 " 
65 " 
80 " 


17 inches. 
21 " 

18 " 
27 " 
20} " 


16 inches. 
15 " 
18} " 
15} " 
20 " 


6 inches. 

5J " 

6J " 

1 " 
1 " 



I recommend for small dairies, 1st. the oval 40 lbs. can ; 
2nd the 50 lbs. 20 inches high by 8 inches diameter, 
round shaped. Both ihese cans are easily handled. 

They should be made of strong material, have only 
one smoothly soldered seam in order to facilitate wash- 
ing. The bottom of these cans rests on a perforated iron 
hoop, to allow the water or ice to penetrate under- 
neath. 

The oval can is the most effective. It offers a larger 
cooling surface. It is estimated that an oval can will 
cool 70 lbs. of milk, in the same time that a round can 
would take to cool only 50 lbs. 




Fig. t. — The deep round can. 



k~= 



zxz======*\ 




Fig. 2. — The deep oval can, 

The deep can used in Denmark has neither covers 
nor taps, (1) Skimming from the bottom with a tap is 
not practised in Denmark. A can having no faucet or 
tap is easier to clean. A tap, placed in a position so as 
not to hinder the easy cleaning of the milk vessel, is 
not strictly objectionable. 



(1) A cover in not objectionable when the manner of using it is properly 
understood. 



10 



THE STRAINERS. 



The strainers are of wire cloth, and made to fit the 
cans. (See fisrs. 3. 4 and 5.) 




Fig. 3. 




Fig. 4. 




Fig. 5 



REFRIGERATING TANKS 



We give below a description with wood cuts, of such 
tanks or refrigerators. 




Pi*. 6. 



Fig. 6 represents a smal size cooling tank containing 
milk cans set in ice. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING COOLING TANKS. 



These tanks may be made of wood with double sides, 
and 2 or 3 inches of space left between the sides, filled 
with charcoal, cut straw, saw dust or chaff. Charcoal is 
th.) best. If straw b3 used, it is necessary that the tank 
be watertight, or damp proof, because if the water were 
to leak through, it would soon cause a disagreable smell. 



11 

Otherwise make a water tight box. Bind and steady 
the angles with iron plates. Line with zinc or tin if 
convenient. If you do not line, a coat of varnish or 
paint, should be given inside, as is done with brewer's 
vats. This precaution makes them easier to clean. 

Tanks No. *7 and 8, could also be adapted to the use 
of running water, and are provided with inflow and 
outflow pipes, to allow a constant stream of water 
around the milk cans. 

In the case of a tank for cooling milk to 33 Q Fahrt. 
with water and ice, an outflow tap at the top and ano- 
ther at the bottom, to be used for cleaning purposes, are 
all that is necessary. 

SIZE OF TANKS. 

The size of tanks should be adapted to the number 
and form of cans to be used. 

The tank should be 4 inches (inside measure) higher 
than the cans used. It should be 4J inches (inside mea- 
sure) wider than the cans used ; there should be a 
space of 5 inches between each can, and between the 
last two cans and the extremities of the tank. 

RULE. 

To find the height of a tank, add 4 inches to the height 
of the cans to be used. To find the width of a tank add 
4J inches to the width of the can. To find the length of 
the tank multiply the longest diameter of the can, by 
the number of cans which the tank is to contain, and to 
the product add 5 as many times, and one more, as the 
tank is to contain cans. 

Supposing that six 40 lb. oval cans, are to be used. 



12 

An ovai can 17 inches high, 16 inches long- and 6 
inches wide, will hold 40 lbs. of milk. 
11 f 4=21 inches = Height of the tank. 
16 f-4J = 20J " = Width " 
6<6 = 36 '• 36 + (1 x 5) = 11 inches length of tank. 








Fig. 7 represents a horizontal view of a tank containing milk can- 
Fig. 8 represents a sectional view of same ta::k. 



13 

The tanks may be covered or not. It depends on the 
room in which they are placed. 

In a cool room where the air is pure and temperature 
uniform a cover is not strictly necessary. 

Otherwise it would be advisable to use a cover over 
the tanks. In any case the use of a cover saves ice 

SKIMMERS. 

Skimming from the top. necessitates a specially made 




Fig. 9. 

skimmer. The skimmers, are round or oval (see fig. 
9). They are generally made of enameled iron. 

CREAMERS OF DIFFERENT DESCRIPTION. 

CABINET " OR BOX " CREAMERS 

There is a great variety of cabinet or box creamers, all 
being modifications of the deep and shallow setting 
methods. They consist in general of cooling pails set in 
a box surrounded by water, some submerged, as in the 
Cooly plan, and others arranged so as to be surrounded 
with ice and water, or to have ice at the top. 

Amongst these we find the following : 

THE HARDIN. 

Mr. L. S. Hardin is probably the first man who used 
deep setting in the United States. In his method the 



14 



cans are set in a box with doors in front like a cupboard. 
It has a shelf on which the ice is placed over the milk, 




Fig. 10.— The Hani in Creamer. 

and a sink on which the cans are set, and which holds 
the water dripping from the melted ice. The cooling 
medium is cold air. (See iig. 10.) 

THE COOLY CAN. 

The Cooly is a round shaped can with a cover projecting 




Fig. 11.— The Coolv Milk Can. 



outwards, and so arranged that the whole may be placed 
under water. It has also a specially constructed tap. 



15 



This can is extensively used in the United States and 
Canada. 




Fig. 12.— The Cooly Creamer. 



THE FERGUSON. 



Ferguson's Bureau Creamer raises the cream on the 
shallow pan system. Ice is used on a rack in the uppei 
part for the purpose of maintaining a uniform tempe- 
rature. The arrangement for drawing out the pans tc 
skim is handy, 

THE LITTLE GEM. 



In this, the cover of each milk vessel is provided with 
an opening or ventilator. 

Openings corresponding to those in the covers of the 



It) 



milk * SB Is, are made in th r of the box, in •: 

to allow the "animal odor to esca] 3 .._ '. 




: - U —The 1 Le . d . 



THE KELT. -. 



osistfi r tank, wh h. is divi : wo 

tmentg an apj i . :. 1 .. '. w i one. The lower 




- . 14.— The Kellog ? i 
Mie ifi filled abort | its I pth with pure 



11 

clean ice. The upper is then filled with milk to the 
depth of 4 or 5 inches. The skim milk can be drawn by 
a tap at the bottom. 

"We also find the " Mosely and Stoddard Cabinet," the 
" Wooster perfection creamery," the " Excelsior creamer " 
" Dripp milk cooler and creamer," " Butler's Cabinet 
creamery," " Clark's Revolving pan " and many others. 

The latest plan is to have the cans dropping or han- 
ging into a lower chamber, thereby avoiding lifting and 
slopping. 



This is a novelty in construction. The milk is cooled 
by pumping cold air through it and this is effected in 
warm weather by drawing the air from a well through 
rubber pipes attached to the pump. The air tight com- 
partment, where the milk is is then closed, and the air ex- 
hausted by the pump so that the cream is raised in vacuo. 



THE " MARQUIS PAN " 



This is another more recent apparatus for raising 
cream on the deep setting principle. 

In its general appearance it is an oblong vat with 
rounded bottom, with a cylindrical tube of tin passing 
lengthwise from end to end through the middle. The 
cylinder is placed below the cream line. This cylinder 
has an inner cylinder and pipe for carrying off water. 
Cold water is forced by a pump through this cylinder 
and the refrigeration of the milk is of course rapid. This 
vat, or one similar to it in construction is used in 
a great number of creameries. 



18 



THE CREAM G-ATHEBING- SYSTEM. 

The main feature of this system is that each farmer 
sets the milk, in vessels of uniform size and shape, in his 
own dairy. It is skimmed by the cream gatherer, who 
is employed, and sent out daily by the creamery. 

VESSELS REQUIRED TO SET THE MILK. 

Bound, oval or conical shaped deep cans may be used. 
But farmers sending cream to one creamery should all 
have vessels of same size and form. In the side of the 




Fig. L5. 



can two or three inches from the top, is lixed a glass 
graduated scale. This scale graduated in inches and parts 
of inches, indicates the dividing line between the cream 
and the skim milk, and enables the cream gatherer to 
see at a glance the thickness of cream, and to measure 
the quantity to be credited to the account of each 
farmer. (See fig. 15.) 



19 



ICE BREAKEKS. 




Fig. 17. — The Greasey hand Ice breaker. 



29 



The main parts of the Creasey ice breaker consist oJ 
an iron box. placed in an inclined position, over a 
revolving cylinder, to which steel knives are riveted. 

Its operation is so simple thai the cui is almost all 
thai is necessary to explain its working. 

The block of ice is placed in the box. it slips uown 
slowly towards 'Volvinir cylinder, and the steel 










knives break it ofi'into small piece* e <>i which i^ 

further regulated by a " comb cast in a'." through which 
the ice falls. (See ii- IT and Is.) 

As the knives follow each other cioseiy. a iar<rc calve 
of ice is rapidlv broken. v*-»i so gradually, that a small 
amount of motive pow*r is required to drive the 
breaker. 



21 



DIFFERENT WAYS OF USING THE NATUEAL 
METHOD. 

While dairymen agree as to the theory, that milk 
should be set at 98 g Fahrt. (or blood heat) and cooled 
down, they differ as to the vessels to be used, as to the 
"cooling medium to be used, some taking ice, others 
water ; they also differ as to the length of time during 
which it is necessary to let the cream rise ; these dif- 
ferences, in the use of the natural method, are designated 
by different names. 

Thus we have, the " Ice 10 hrs. " plan. This means, 
that the milk was set in deep vessels and remained in 
ice during 10 hours. 

Again there is the " Ice 34 hours " plan. This, indi- 
cates that the milk vessel was deep, the cooling medium 
was ice. but that the time instead of being 10 hours, 
was 34 hours. Another plan is the " Water at 50° Fahrt. 
34 hours ". In this case the milk is also set in deep ves- 
sels, the cooling is done by means of water at 50° Fahrt. 
and the time was 34 hours. There is also the " Shallow 
pan 34 hours " plan. In this, the milk is set in shallow- 
pans, is cooled to 55° Fahrt. and remains at that 
temperature 34 hours. 

Still another plan is the " Churning of milk ". This 
plan, consists as its name expresses in churning the 
whole milk. 

THE MECHANICAL PROCESS. 

The mechanical process consists, in depriving the 
milk of its cream by centrifugal force. 

Centrifugal force is a force of nature, by which an 



object revolving- around a given centre is continually 
trying to break away from that centre. 

If the object, which is revolving, is a vessel containing 
a liquid composed of elements of different weight, such 
as milk, these elements will separate and arrange them- 
selves according to their weight ; the heavier ones will 
be further from the centre, the lighter ones nearer. 

Milk as already explained, is a liquid containing ele- 
ments of unequal weight, namely cream and a watery- 
liquid somewhat heavier ; therefore if milk is placed in 
a vessel which is made to revolve, it is evident that the 
cream, the watery liquid, and any impurities the milk 
contains, will separate and form three distinct rings. 
The impurities being heaviest will form the outside one, 
the skim milk will form the next, and the cream being 
the lightest of all will be closest to the centre. This is 
the principle upon which all centrifugal separators are 
constructed ; the differences between them, are dif- 
ferences of detail. 

"We shall now give cuts of several of them, with a 
complete and detailed description of those which are 
generally used in America. 



28 



DESCRIPTION OF MILK SEPARATORS. 

The Burmeinster & Wain Centrifugal Milk Sepa- 
rator, known as Danish Weston in the 
United States. 

This Separator, whose action is continuous, consists of 
a hollow steel drum revolving on a vertical axis. This 
Separator differs from others in the manner of removing 
the cream and skim milk. Two curved metallic tubes 
(see fig. 19) are used which are screwed on and curved 
around the safety cap of the drum, without interfering 
with its working. These tubes draw up the cream and 
skim milk from their respective receptacles. They are- 
pointed at the ends, and are inserted one, in the inside 
surface of the cream ring, and the other in that of the 
skim milk ring (see fig. 22). They are moved to and 
from the centre of the drum, thereby cream of any 
required thickness (from the consistency of butter 
almost, to the consistency of milk) can be obtained while 
the machine is working. The drum has attached to its 
inside, three vertical flanges extending 5 inches towards 
the centre. These flanges extend from the bottom, almost 
to the top. They serve a double purpose. 1st They prevent 
the milk from revolving independently of the drum. 2d 
They serve to support the cream cover. The cream coyer 
is a horizontal flat ring of metal which rests on these 
vertical flanges ; it does not touch the sides. Its use is 
to keep the cream and skim milk separate at the out 
flow. 



25 

These machines are made of different sizes and capa- 
cities. According to Prof. Fjord's experiments, the A size 
can skim 1200 lbs of milk per hour, with a speed of 1800 
revolutions per minute. As the speed of this Separator 
has lately been increased to 2300 revolutions per minute, 
it is evident that it can now skim a much larger quan- 




Fig. 20. — The Burmeinster & Wain Milk Separator in working order 

Model, A A 

tity of milk than 1200 lbs per hour. (See Chapter on 
comparison between different separators), 

The B size is calculated to make 3000 revolutions per 
minute. According to the result of Prof. Fjord's ex- 
periments, it will skim, TOO lbs of milk per hour and 
leave 0.25 o/o (1) of butter fat in the skim milk. 

The B size is built after the A A. Model. 

The latest improvements on this machine consist of a 
speed indicating apparatus, pipes for lifting fluid, d.cL 
fig. 22, and a controlling funnel showing the quantity of 
milk flowing into the machine, (see bb, fig. 22.) 

(I) 4 ounces in the skim-milk obtained from 100 Lbs. of whole milk. 



26 

The controlling funnel consists of a tin vessel 5 inches 
high, to which are attached two conical tubes, through 
which the milk enters the drum of the Separator. (See 
a, b, c, d. fig. 21 and b, b, fig, 22). By elevating or lowering 
two vertical cylindrical rods, placed 'in the conical tubes 




Fig. 21. — Controlling funnel. 



the flow of milk is increased or decreased at will. A 
graduated scale situated at the upper end of the vertical 
rods, indicates the quantity of milk flowing per hour 
into the machine, (see fig. 22). 



21 



Fig. No. 22 represents a sectional view of the drum of 
the separator and also the milk regulator- It shows how 
the skim milk, by means of an elevating tube may be 
raised by centrifugal force, as high as 8 feet or more, and 




Fig 2"?.— Section of the Separator. 

a, Milk vat ; b, Controlling funnel ; c, Safety Jacket ; F, Cream ; SKM. 

Skim milk; d, Tube for removing the skim milk. 

led into a cheese vat, reservoir, or to a great distance 
away from the factory or dairy, to a barn, piggery &c. 
The cream may also be raised in a similar manner, and 
led into a cooler specially made for this purpose. 

HOW THE MACHINE WORKS, 

The new milk is placed in a milk vat (a. fig. 22) and 



23 

flows through the controlling funnel (b. b. fig. 22) into a 
drum, which revolves rapidly ; the centrifugal force 
thus generated, separates the different substances accor- 
ding to their weight. The impurities being the heaviest, 
collect upon the sides of the drum. The skim milk 
next in weight collects next, and by a constant inflow of 
new milk, it gradually rises to the top, where it is 
stopped by the cover and forced into the outflow pipe, 
by a constant inflow as well as by centrifugal force. 

The cream collects in a wall upon the inner surface 
of the skim milk, and flows in a constant stream through 
another tube similar to tube d. From the above descrip- 
tion it will be seen that once started it works conti- 
nuously until the whole amount of milk is separated. 

THE SKIMMING OF THE FIRST AND LAST MILK 
CONTAINED IN THE SEPARATOR. 

These operations require care and attention. With the 
Burmeinster & Wain Separator they are done in the 
following manner ; 

FIRST CONTENTS. 

After filling the drum f full, the machine is started 
slowly, and the milk is allowed to run into the drum 
at the ordinary flow, until it reaches the skimming 
tubes. 

The tubes must then be regulated in such a manner 
as to draw off the cream. It must be remembered that 
both Ihe rubes draw otf cream at the beginning. But the 
operator should let the flow from the cream tube, run 
into the cream receiver, and the How from the other 



29 

tube (although it is cream and partially skimmed milk) 
run to the skim milk receiver. 

The flow should now be considerably checked, and 
should remain so until one fifth (1) of the first contents 
has been drawn off. At this point the milk is allowed 
to enter the drum at the regular flow. The tubes are 
then regulated so that from 18 to 20 o?o of the contents 
of the drum shall be drawn off in the shape of cream. 

The machine is now in full operation, 

THE LAST CONTENTS. 

When the whole milk vat is empty, there remain but 
the last contents of the drum to be skimmed. 

1st Partially unscrew the skim milk tube so as to 
check entirely the skim milk flow, and keep up the cream 
flow until the end of the operation. To displace the last 
contents, allow an intermittent inflow of skim milk. 
The quantity of skim milk necessary, is equal to one-fifth 
of what the drum is capable of containing while in 
operation (2). This operation takes from 10 to 15 minutes. 

A great number of these separators are now in suc- 
cessful operation in different countries of the world. 
The Danish manufacturers being unable to supply the 
demand, they are now manufactured in the United States 
by the Philadelphia creamery supply Co. under the 
name of Danish Weston, and in Canada by Messrs. G-arth 
& Co., Montreal, under the name of Burmeinster & Wain. 

This Separator was introduced into Canada in the 

(!) This one-fifth which is composed of cream and partially skimmed 
milk, should be thrown back into the whole milk vat, to be skimmed 
anew. 

(2j The drum of the large size contains 130 lbs., of small size, 33 lbs. 



30 



spring of the year 1882, by a public spirited gentleman 
of Beauce, Mr H. J. J. Duchesnay 

THE DE LAVAL MILK SEPARATOR. 

Fig. 24 gives an outside view of the machine when 
in operation. The standard and bed-plate are in one 




Fig. 23 — Sectional view of the De Laval Separator. 

piece, so that the whole can be at once attached to 
the floor of the dairy, or to the frame of the intermediate 
machinery. Its action is also continuous. 



31 




im and skim milk Hows out of this Separator 
by the power of gravitation alone, and such power is not 
sufficient to Rhe us • of elevating tubes, to lead 

id skim milk through a cooler to their res- 
pective Y 

Ficr. 2 3 srives a sectional view of this cream se 

parai : drum capable of resisting a 

• 2 atmos but as these machines are 

not sent out from the factory until they ar [ at a 

of 250 atmospheres they are perfectly sale 

machine is worked in the following manner, 

new milk runs into the bottom of the centrifugal 

chamber .7. from which by means of a small tube, it 

flows drum where if the 

kirn, milk tab's pla< 
A llanti'i Le of the mil ents 

y indepe rotating 

ced into ih" pipe h. it enters 
the aperture c in th ry chamber B. and runs 

out by means of an exit s 

Ai th" same tim i "im collecting in th 

rises along the neck d. escaping by into 

the stationary chamber C. The op m \y be en- 

d-diminished ar will, b; dl screw 

/". pi we the amount 

-am taken from a certain amount of new milk, but 
this reir Lty of cream must take place 

whif is stationary. Tim- it is impossible 

to obtain thick or thin cream while the apparatus is in 
ation. C lie supi rotary vessel is 

s A. surrounded by an elastic pack- 
:". and its lower end fits, in a socket m, upon the 



33 

upper end of the shaft Z, which is mounted on bearings . 
and is set into motion by a belt or band k. 

The stand D supports the machine which requires no 
heavy foundation. 

A small lubricating cup attached to the lower 
part of the spindle, gives through a pipe a con- 
stant supply of the oil required for lubricating the 
spindle, 

The milk drum is driven at the rate of 6000 to T000 
revolutions per minute, and according to Prof. Fjord's 
experimental test.'will skim from 600 to ^700 lbs. of milk 
per hour, and leave from 0.25 to 0.30 o/o (1) of butter fat 
in the skim milk. 

This separator made its first appearance in Canada, 
during the winter of 1884. It is quoted at $260.00. 

THE LEFELDT MILK SEPARATOR. 

A full description of this separator was given in my 
report to the Minister of Agriculture of the province of 
Quebec, in 1881. In the same year, it was tested by 
Prof. Fjord, and found to loose 0.85 o/o (2) of butter fat 
during every hour of its working. This loss was caused 
by the suction of cream by air into the skim milk. The 
last contents of the drum could not be skimmed com- 
pletely. "We do not know whether these defects have 
been remedied or not since. 



(1) From 4 to 5} ounces in the skim milk obtained from 100 lbs. of 
whole milk. 

(2) This is I3i ounces 



34 

In this machine, the consistency of the cream cannot 
be regulated while it is in operation. It must be stopped 
to do so. 



iMewJfilk 




Fig. 25. — The Lefeldt Milk Separator, e, cream ; f, milk 
in process of separation ; g, skim milk. 



])r Fleischman quotes the price and capacity of the 
Lefeldt separator as follows : 

No 0. 330 lbs. of milk per hour. . . . $125.00 
No 1. 550 " " • • 250.00 

No 2. 1100 •• " 375.00 

No 3. 1650 ' " 500.00 

No 4. 2250 " . . 025.00 

Intermediate motion. , , , $37.00 



35 

The new model of the Lefeldt Separator, (fig. 26) has 
noc to our knowledge been thoroughly tested, and we 
are unable to state exactly, what it can do. 



a-iiw-wias 




The capacity claimed for it is 600 lbs per hour. 

Cost : $225. 

THE FESCA MILK SEPARATOR 



This separator was also described in my report to the 
Minister of Agriculture, &c. &c. 

In this Separator the skim milk only is continuously 



36 



discharged during the operation, the cream remains in 
the drum. At the end of every hour the machine musf 
be stopped and the cream emptied. For this reason it is 




not to be recommended. Mr Fesca has lately built a sepa- 
rator working continuous 1 . y,but it is not extensively used. 
This separator is built in Berlin, G-ermany. 

THE NAKSKOV MILK SEPARATOR. 

This small separator was exhibited at Aalborg, Den= 



£7 



mark, in June 1883, but was considered too imperfect 
to compete with the Burmeinster & Wain andDe Laval, 
during the Vestervig experimental trial and competition. 



Fig 8.— The Nakskov Milk Separator. . 

Its defects were classified as follows : 

1st. The sprinkling of cream and skim milk. 

2nd. The snction of cream by air into the skim milk. 

3rd. Difficulties in oiling the lower bearings. 

We understand ihat some of these defects have been 
remedied since. The capacity claimed for it is 500 lbs 
of milk per hour. 

This machine is made by Messrs. Tuxen & Ham. 
merich, Nakskov, Denmark. 



38 



THE IIENRICH PETERSEN SHALE MACHINE. 

This machine differs in its construction from those 
we have already described. Instead of a drum revolving" 
on a vertical axis, we find one or two drums moving on 
a horizontal shaft. 

In this separator, the skim milk is removed by move- 
able knives or shalers. 

By the proper use of the shalers, thin or thick cream t 
may be obtained while the machine is in operation. 




Fig. 29.— The Henrich Petersen Rhule Machine. 



G-reat modifications have lately been made in the 
construction of the Shalers of this machine. 




Fig. 32. 
Cuts Nos. 30, 31 and 32, represent details of the 
shale machine. 



40 

The new shaling tubes are arranged so as to remove all 
the skim milk from the drum, at the end of the opera- 
tion. This machine is said to make from 1,000 to 1,100 
revolutions per minute, and to require 1| horse power. 
The capacity claimed for it is 1,000 lbs. of milk pei 




Pig, 33._Petersen's Shale Centrifugal with now shaling tubes. 

hour for a single drum, and 2,000 lbs. for a machine 
having' two drums. This machine is sold by Montreicht 
cV Co., Hamburg, G-ermany. Price. $825. 



THE HERMAN PAPE MACHINE. 

This new machine is made with either perpendicular 
or horizontal drums. The cream and : kim milk instead 
of being removed by gravitation or centrifugal action, is 
forced out of the drum by hydrostatic pressure. The 



41 

outflow of cream and skim milk can be regulated during 
the operation by a suitable faucet. 

Contrary to that of other separators, the drum is com- 
pletely filled and closed air tight. From this machine, 
the cream and skim milk come out in quiet streams, 
without the foaming liable to occur, when the liquids 
are extracted by centrifugal force. 




A, stationary pipe. B, cover rotating with the drum. C, rotating Box 
in which the inlet pipe is tightly fitted. D, stationary outlet pipe for the 
cream. E, rotating pipe for the skim milk, a a, boxes on which the shatt 
is mounted. B, support for the inlet pipe. 



42 



The air tight cover has to be fastened on the drum 
every time ihe machine is used. 




Fig 35 — The Herman Pape Machine. 

THE AHLBOEN MILK HEATER. 

A very useful apparatus for heating milk (when it is 
deemed advisable to do so) was constructed by Mr. 
Ahlborn, of Hildesheim, G-ermany. I have introduced it 
into Canada. It can be seen in operation at the Saint- 
Sebastien creamery, province of Quebec. 

This very simple and useful apparatus consists of a 
copper box with an inclined and ribbed surface, some- 
thing like a wash-board. A perforated spout is 
placed across this inclined surface at its highest ex- 
tremity. The box is filled with water and heated by 
means of a steam coil running through it. The cold 



43 



milk falls through a tap from the reception vat into the 
perforated spout, it is spread in a thin sheet over 




the inclined surface, and by the time it has reached the 
other extremity, it has acquired sufficient heat to be led 



! I 

throuti'h a pipe directly into the milk separator. Thus 
ihc milk is constantly heated, and only in sulficienl 
quantity I lie' separator. "With this apparatus 

there is no danger of heated milk, sourinir in the vats. 

F.I i nilYS CKFAAI C\ n >LEK. 

For eoolimr crean ig's. - 7 and >b a 

rat us has been constructed by Prof. Fjord. 

DEscinrTK >x. 

A tin vessel is placed inside another, leaving a spa< e 
to be idled with ice. From the bottom of the inm 




I 

a tube extends through the side of the other. On the 
partial cover inner can a funnel is placed so as to 

revolve easily around a delicate spindle at its lower ex- 
tension (See flu' 88.) 

The iVmne] whi< h is solid ! bottom is pro- 



45 

vided with tour discharge pipes extending clo«e to the 
circumference of the can, and bent at the ends as shown 
in section, fig. 37. The cream drops from the skim- 
ming pipe of the separator, which, if necessary, may be 
'extended above the machine (see fig. 22) into this 




Fig. 38.— Fjord's Gream Cooler 

Tunnel, and flowing through the four tubes, it makes the 
funnel go round, distributing the cream around the sides 
of the can. Flowing down in a very thin sheet, along 
the wall of the can, it is cooled to a temperature below 
50° Fahrt. before reaching the bottom. A similar appa- 
ratus may be used for cooling the skim milk.. 



46 



PROF. FJORD'S MILK CONTROLLER FOR 
TESTINO MILK. 

This instrument is destined to render great services 
to our cooperative dairies, for it can in a few minutes 
show precisely the richness of from 12 to 24 samples of 
milk. 

It consists of a scalloped disk of copper which can be 
made to revolve upon the spindle of a large size centrifu- 




Controller for testing milk. 



o*al, or on any other rapidly revolving vertical pivot. To 
this disk can be hooked from 2 to 24 copper tubes. la 
these tubes are placed graduated bottles holding samples 
of milk (see fig, 39) When at rest, these tabes assume a 
perpendicular position and hang down, but when in 
motion they fly out and become horizontal, like vhe 
two at the right of fig. 39. 



47 

Each bottle has on its neck a scale divided into units 
and halves, from to 12 to indicate at the end of the ope- 
ration, the quantity of cream in the milk. These bottles 
are numbered so that they may be identified. 

The separation takes place by centrifugal force in the 
milk bottles, the cream accumulating in the neck. 

MODE OF OPERATION. 

The bottles are first half filled with the milk to be 
tested, (a mark on the outside indicates the half). The 
remaining space is then filled up with hot water to the 
mark in the neck, and the whole is heated up to 90* 
Farht. When the milk has attained the required tempe- 
rature the bottles are placed in the metal tubes, at the 
bottom of which rubber is placed to prevent breakage. 
The disk is then made to revolve. 

Mr Fjord estimates that 40,000 revolutions are/required 
to completely separate the cream. This apparatus should 
not be made to go faster then 1200 revolutions per 
minute. 

EULE. 

Allow for the time which the disk takes to reach the 
maximum speed one half the number of revolutions per 
minute that is counted when it has attained the highest 
speed. 

EXPLANATION. 

For the first four minutes, while the machine is ac- 
quiring the required speed, we count GOO revolutions per 
minute ; this gives for these four minutes 2400 revolu- 
tions. There now remain 40.000 revolutions, less 2400 
to be made, equal to B1.GQ0. The machine having acquired 



13 



its speed is then mi 1 200 revolutions a minute 

Therefor, the numbe, - which 87,600 will co.it.uii 

1200 is exactly the number of * wh:eh it will 

take' is i« 81*. 



Ami ■ 

i red. 



.[dilutes the time 



4tf 



Value of different systems of skimming. 



In Denmark where the importance of the dairy 
industry is well understood, the government keeps a 
staff of experts of great capacity, constantly employed 
in testing new systems, as they appear, in comparing 
them with the old and giving to the country at large 
the benefit of their experiments, and of the knowledge 
thus acquired. It is true that the country is obliged to 
expend a considerable sum of money for this purpose* 
but there is no doubt that it is a profitable investment ; 
Danish farmers and dairymen don't invest in inventions 
and improvements, until they have ascertained their 
exact value from the government reports. 

When the Cooly can first made its appearance in 
Denmark, and the claim was made that it could raise 
all the cream between milkings, or in 10 hours with 
water at 46° or 50° Fahrt., the Danish government 
ordered Prof. J. N. Fjord, the greatest living dairy ex- 
pert, to investigate this claim and report on it. 

When the centrifugal at first made its appearance, 
Prof. J. N. Fjord was commissioned to examine it, and 
to let the public know its value. 

COMPARISON OF THE COOLY WITH 
OTHER SYSTEMS. 

We give below the result of the experiments then 
made, showing the comparative butter yield of the fol- 
lowing systems : the " Centrifugal ", the " Ice 12 h©urs ", 
the u Ice 24 hours ", the " Water at 46° Fahrt. 12 hours 

4 



50 

and 24 hours", the " Water at 40° Fahrt. 12 hours and 
24 hours", and the "Cooly". 

The size of the Cooly can used in these experiments 
was equal to that of the ordinary deep can. Both the 
" Cooly " and the ordinary cans were placed in the same 
cooling vessel, and left at the same temperature, the 
same length of time, so that ail the conditions of skim- 
ming with the use of these different methods were per- 
fectly identical. The results are about similar to those 
obtained in preceding experiments, and prove once more 

that THE LOWER THE TEMPERATURE, THE LARGER THE 
YIELD. 

TABLE No. 2 





"3 

be 

a 

s 


Ice 32° Fahrt. 


Water at 46° Fahrt. 




12hrs 
setting 


24 hrs 

setting 


12 hours 
setting. 


24 hours 

setting. 




o 


5 • 

c c 

=§8 

O 


s- 

o 


6 § 


Z. 3 




45 lb. miik cans 

Proportionate yield of butter. 

Lbs. ol milk to a lb. of butter... 

30 lb. milk cans 

Proportionate yield of butter 

Lbs. of milk to a lb. of butter 


115.8 
27 

118 

27.2 

115 
27.2 

114.5 

27.4 


96 
32.7 

96.7 
33.3 

96.8 
327 

96 
32.6 


100 
31.6 

100 
32.2 

100 
31.5 

100 
31.3 


79 9 
39.6 

80.7 
39.9 


SO 1 
39.5 

80.8 
39.8 


89 9 

35.2 


90.2 
35.1 




Water at 40° Fahrt. 


45 lb. milk cans 

Proportionate yield of butter 

Lbs. of milk to a lb. of butter 

30 lb. mi'.k cans 

Proportionate yield of butter. ..... 

Lbs. of milk to a lb. of butter... 


91.0 
34.6 

25 
33 9 


91.1 
34.6 

92.7 
33.8 


96.2 
32.7 


96.3 
327 



The milk from Danish cows is somewhat poorer than that from 
Canadian cows. 



51 

It is easy from this table to determine the value of 
these methods. 

When from a certain quantity of whole milk the 
u Centrifugal " extracted 115.8 lbs. of butter, the " Ice 
24 hours " extracted from the same quantity of whole 
milk of the same richness, 100 lbs. ; and the " Ice 12 
hours" extracted 96 lbs., and " Water " (according to the 
can used and the number of hours of setting) produced 
T9.9, 80.1 lbs. ; 89.9, 90.2 lbs. 

It is thus seen that using the " Centrifugal " it takes 
2*7 lbs. of whole milk to make 1 lb. of butter. Using 
" Ice 24 hours " it takes 31.6 ; " Ice 12 hours " requires 
32.7 lbs. to make a lb. of butter, &o. 

Another series of experiments was made by Prof. Fjord 
at the experimental farm of Ourupp. The object of these 
experiments, which continued during 12 months, from 
April. 1881, to March, 1882, was to ascertain the relative 
butter yield of the following six systems : 

" ICE, 10 HOURS ; " " ICE, 34 HOURS ; " " WATER 
AT 50* FAHRT, 34 HOURS ; " "SHALLOW PANS 
34 HOURS;" " CENTRIFUGAL ; " "CHURNING 
OF MILK." 

Each experimental day, 609 lbs. of milk were used, 
divided in the following manner : 50 lbs. for each trial 
by the " Ice, " the " Cold water " and the " Pan " 
systems ; 400 lbs. for the " Centrifugal, " and 9 lbs. for 
the " Churning of milk, " methods. 

The milk was cooled to 33° Fahrt by the "Ice system*" 
By the " Cold water " system, setting in deep cans, the 



52 

milk was maintained at a uniform temperature of 50° 
Fahrt. The thickness of the milk in the "Low pans" ran 
up to two inehes,and the milk was maintained at atempe- 
raturesuthently low, tokeep it peri'e< tly sweet during 34 
hours, even in the hottest days of Summer. 

Kadi 50 lb., experiment with the " ice, " " Cold 
water, a! id " Low pan " systems gave about 9 lbs 
cream , and each portion of cream was churned separa- 
tely. One-eight of the cream (or nearly lbs.) obtained 
through the centrifugal proi ess I heated 

again, acidulated and finally churned. tion had 

preceded the churning of the ( .> lbs, of wh 

During the period above mentioned. : miments, 

divided into two series, were executed : ih; 
ries was made with milk from cows 

and ' T with milk bought from sever;!! f 

Lor the " low pan *' experiments, the milk was kept 
at a lower temperature (5° nearly) than that which is 
generally found in ordinary dairies or bur. 
consequently, the butter yield w 
generally obtained in the" low p 

We give the results in tabu! 
information of such of our readers as have neither time 
nor inclination to go over the tables, we give the aver- 
ages in larger type. 

Note. — TT" third and fourth to not a 1 ar in the 

column ibk'S, but they are reckoned ii il averages, 



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57 

In table No. 5, the basis of comparison is " Ice 
34 hours. " Thus the table is read in the following 
manner : taking- April when " Ice " 34 hours gives 
100 lbs. of butter, " Ice " 10 hours gives only 92.^ lbs,, 
" Water at 50° Fahrt. 34 hours " gives still less,83.4 lbs.; 
"Low pans 34 hours" give 104.8 lbs.; the "Centrifu- 
gal" gives 113. 8. lbs. ; the "Churning of milk" gives 
106.8 lbs. 

From these tables the following facts may be gather* 
ed: 

lo. A method, which works well at one season, may 
not work well at another. Thus during the month of 
December (see table 3) by the " Ice 10 hours," it took 
^79.6 lbs. of milk to make 1 lb. of butter, while by the 
same method, during the month of August, it took but 
2t.6 lbs. All the conditions of skimming in both cases 
were perfectly identical. The difference was caused by 
■' heavy milk" 

2o. The loss from heavy milk was less apparent in the 
milk obtained from several farms, than in that taken 
from the farmer's own cows, because in the first case the 
milk of old calved cows was mixed with that of newly 
calved cows ; and old calved cows give comparatively 
little milk. 

3o. Milk transported from other farms, shows an aver- 
age loss of temperature of 14° Fahrt, over that obtained 
on the farm. This loss of heat caused the butter yield 
to be 2f per cent, less than that obtained frori the milk 
of the farmer's own cows. 

We give below an indicator diagram, showing the 
decrease or increase of the cream yielding power of milk 
during different months, with different methods of sMm- 
minsr : 



TABLE .\ 




Th j value of the systems can here be seen at a glance. 
First corner the " Centrifusral " ; then the " Churninsr of 



59 

milk," and afterwards the ik Ice system " for a part of the 
year. 

During the months of October, November and Decem- 
ber the *' Ice" system being unable to raise a sufficient 
proportion of the cream, on account of the milk being 
"heavy," it was superseded by the " Low pan " system. 
This substitution is shown for these months by means 
of a dotted line ; the months during which the " Ice " 
system was used being indicated by a full line. 

From the above tables we take the following general 

results. 

Table 8. 

general results. 



Centrifugal 

Churning of milk 

Ice 34 hours 

Ice 10 hours., 

Water at 50 p Fahrt.34 hrs 



Experiments mu«l 
with milk from the far- 
mer's own cows. 



Duration of experi- 
ments, 10 months. 



Pounds of milk re- 
quired to make I lb 
of butter. 



Aver- 
age. 



24.4 
26.7 
27.5 
29.5 
32. 



Mini- Maxi- 
mum, mum. 



23. 

25.4 
25.8 
27.6 

28*8- 



25.8 
28.2 
29.2 
31.4 
35.9 



Experiments with 
bought milk. 



Duration of ex peri- 
mentp, 1 ! months. 



Pounds of milk re- 
quired to make I lb. 
of butter. 



Aver- Mini-- Maxi- 
age. mum. mum. 



25.5 
27.3 
29.2 
31.3 
35 9 



22 7 
2.4.4 
2 5\3 
2G.7 
29.6 



27,- 
31.2 
31 N 
34.1 
400 



RESULT OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF " BUTTER- 
MILK," "BUTTER" AND 'SKIM MILK." 



The " butter milk," " butter " and " skim milk " ob 
tained by the above methods of treating milk, wer* 
next analysed by Prof. Store k, of the Stein experimental 
Station, Denmark, in order to determine the quantity o; 



60 

butter fat contained in each of them, and thus to ascer- 
tain if the difference in the butter yield was due to the 
differences of efficiency of the several methods of treat- 
ing milk, or if it could be partly attributed to the 
incomplete churning of the cream, or to the ineffectual 
working of the butter in some cases. 

ANALYSIS OF THE " BUTTER MILK." 

The " butter milk" was then analyzed, and the result 
shows a remarkable uniformity in the quantities of 
butter fat contained in the different butter milks, ob- 
tained from milk of same quality, but which had been 
skimmed by different methods. 

The butter milk derived from 100 lbs. of whole milk 
gave in no case a larger quantity of butter fat than 1 J 
ounces. It was therefore evident that the difference in 
the butter yield could not be attributed to a waste in 
the butter milk. 

The difference in the butter yield must then be attri- 
buted either to the presence of an unusual quantity of 
water or cheesy matter in some of the butter, or to the 
superior efficiency of some systems of skimming over 
others. 

ANALYSIS OF THE BUTTER, 

The results showed that the butter obtained from 
milk treated by different methods of skimming contain- 
ed the same quantity of water, in every case the quan- 
tity was 2 J ounces to a pound of butter. 

ANALYSIS OF THE SKIM MILK. 

Tt wr.s now plain, that the differences in the butter 
yield, must be caused, by some methods of skimming 



Gl 

leaving in the skim milk a larger proportion of butter 
fat than others. 

TABLE No. 9. 
Chemical Analysis of the " Skim Milk." 

PERCENTAGE OF BUTTER FAT IN THE SKIM MILK. 



Different Methods of Skimming. 



1881. 

June 7th — Milk from the cows of a 
private dairy 

June 8th — Milk from the cows of dif- 
ferent farms 

September 28th— -Milk from a private 
dairy 

October 4th — Milk from a private 
dairy 

November 8th —Milk from the cows of 
different farms 

November 27th — Milk from the cows 
of a private dairy 

December 16th — Milk from the cows 
of a private dairy , 



Milk from newly-calved cows only : 

November 27th— Milk from the cows 
of a private dairy 

December 16th— Milk from the cows 
of a private dairy 



1882. 



January 23rd . 
February 1 3th 
March 6th 



ozs. 



13 

17 s/. 25 

20 4/ 25 



6 Vio 

9 
12 
15 
i6 J 

41 1/7 



9 3/2 

7 



8 */ 5 

12 

7 \ 









12 
15 I 

IS 4/10 

20 J 



21 i 

■9 i 

4. 4. 

15 i 



OZS. 



8 * 

9 % 

16 i 
17 



7 
6 I 



5 I 
9 \ 
5 I 



2 

1 i 

2 2/25 
? * 

4 \ 
*■! 

2 4/io 

1 1 

I 3/ 5 



I 3 /5 
1 3 /5 
1 I 



From this table, we see that the differences in the 
butter yield, are entirely due to some methods of skim- 
ming milk, being more efficient than others. 



62 



Th'^ quantity of butter fat contained in milk from 
Danish cows varies from 3 to 4°/ of its weight. Wo 
may adopt 3.50% as an average 

WHAT THE DIFFERENT METHODS CAN DO 
AND SHOULD DO. 

Table No 10 





What the methods 


What they really do 




should do. 


in Denmark. 




° "^ is 


fe S 


^BSi 


S- r~ 

CJ P 




2 CO 


? C 15 2 ° 






2 ~»~ w 


4> 35 


° 03 * « 






,P -P 


















er© o 


_ 


£ c p 2 


„ 


Methods. 


^ p • 


*.5 


P .i .2 p P 

5-= 5 e 


*.s 














-2 («•- 
c •- E S 


p" ® 




p o 




I^Ss 


.2 jm 


.S .* 












© 5 ■- ^ 


|3a 


£S g I'gJS 


Mi 




H 


j& 




Sj 








ozs. of butter 


nearly 


Ice 34 hrs 


5 6/io ozs. of butter ... 


i/io 


b 92/ 100 


Ve 


Shallow-pans 34 hrs. 


6 Vio " 


V9 


10 ^3/ 100 


Vb 


Centrifugal 


16/25 « 


1 /87 


2 4/ 10 


1/23 



Thus we can see at a glance, what the different 
methods can do and should do, when used to their 
utmost capacity. 

We find that in Danemark with the " Ice method 
34 hours," £ of all the butter fat is left in the skim 
milk, with the Shallow pans 34 hours, J of the butter 
fat remains in the skim milk and, that the " Centrifugal" 
leaves about ^\. 

This shows that the Danes find it advantageous to 
skim the milk very elosely. 



63 



CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT 
SYSTEMS (1). . 

lo. Advantages and disadvantages. 
2o. Appreciation of the quality of butter produced by 
each system. 

3o. "When and how to use them. 

THE SHALLOW PAN SYSTEM. 

ADVANTAGES. 

lo. When large pans are used, it requires less labor than 
the deep setting in cans, and the first cost of the plant is 
less than that of the centrifugal. 

2o. It may be used with advantage in the treatment 
of heavy milk. 

DISADVANTAGES. 

In some countries where butter making is well un- 
derstood and well practiced, the shallow pans are rapidly 
disappearing out of small private dairies, where ice can 
be had. They are also superseded by the centrifugal 
separator in large and cooperative dairies. 

Good butter can be made from milk set in shallow 
pans, but this system offers the following disadvant- 
ages: 

lo. It requires very much time. 

2o. an abundance of running water. 

3o. li much space. 

4o. a cool specially constructed and well 

aired room, and a uniform temperature. 

(I) Shallow pans, deep setting in cold water, deep setting in ice, and 
the centrifugal systems, are now in use in Canada Deep setting in cold 
water (45 to 55 © Fahr.) is most in use in our private dairies. 



64 

5o. It exposes the milk tc atmospheric changes, and 
to the absorption of impurities from the surrounding air. 

60. In hot weather, cream from the shallow pans is 
apt to be cheesy, and the quality of the butter generally 
lacks uniformity. 

Yo. The cream is apt to over ripen. 

80. During the heat of summer even when milk can 
be kept sweet during 34 hrs., this mode of skimming 
gives less butter than deep setting in ,; Ice " 84 hrs. 

9o. In hot weather it leaves the skim milk in a bad 
condition. 

lOo. It is not very well adapted to cooperative dairies, 
because it requires the transportation of milk twice a 
day. 

The shallow pan system may be used with advant- 
age, in places, where no other cooling medium than cold 
air or cold running water is to be had, and also in the 
treatment of heavy milk, 

HOW TO USE THE SHALLOW PANS. 

Milk should be set to the depth of from 2 J to 4 inches,( i) 
immediately after each milking, at a temperature of about 
55" Fahrt. (2) and kept sweet 36 hours before skimming. 
The best time to skim is, when the milk is yet sweet. If 
the operator desires to see if the cream has completely 
risen, he should make a streak with a spoon across the 
surface. If this streak remains visible for a little while* 
after it is made, the cream has finished rising. 

(1) According to the temperature of the place where it is set, and the 
time of the milking period. 

(2) If the temperature of the room is kept below 57° the milk will 
remnin sweet 36 hours. If the temperature ranges from 57° to 63° the 
milk will remain sweet from 30 to "24 hours. In any case it should be- 
skimmed bel'ore acidulation takes place. 



65 
DEEP SETTING; 

ADVANTAGES OF DEEP SETTING. 

lo. It saves space. 
2o. It saves water. 

3o. If proper means are taken it will keep milk free 
from atmospheric impurities. 

Deep setting in water at 50° Fahrt. 

According to the result of Prof. Fjord's experiments, 
deep setting at 50 Q Fahrt. gave the poorest yield of any 
system of skimming. It gave something like 40 o/o less 
butter than the centrifugal. 

It may be used in small dairies, where the only cool- 
ing medium to be had is cold or spring water. 

Milk should remain in the vessels at least 36 hours. 

Importance of using ice with the deep setting 

SYSTEM. 

In order to give the farmer a practical illustration of 
the advantage of using ice, in a country like this, where 
any quantity is furnished every winter by nature, let 
us give some figures in this connection. 

According to Prof. Fjord's experiments and those of 
other dairy scientists, the ice system, 34 hours gives 
from 11 to 1Y per cent, more butter than cold water at 
50° Fahrt. 34 hours — average 14 per cent 

Thus if we obtain 100 lbs. of batter out of 2500 lbs- 
of milk cooled to 33° Fahrt., we will get only 86 lbs. out 
of the same quantity cooled to 50° Fahrt. Loss 14 lbs- 
at 25 cts. : $3.50. 

Supposing that a farmer keeps 10 cows, and obtains 

5 



60 

from them a yearly average of 3750 lbs. of milk, or about 
150 lbs. of butter. The loss on 150 lbs. is equal to $5. 2c 
multiplied by 10 equal $52.50. 

Prof. Fjord calculates that to every 100 lbs. of milk 
1£ lbs. of ice are required for every degree of heat to 
be expelled. The quantity varies with the time the milk 
stands, the form of the milk can, the kind of refri- 
gerator or cooling tank used, and also the temperature 
of the milk room. 

To bring 100 lbs.of milk just short of freezing point with 
single sided tanks, with 24 hours setting, it would re- 
quires says Mr. Fjord from 65 to 70 lbs. of ice a day 
average 67| lbs. between May and September, and 42 
lbs. during the remainder of the year. A cubic foot of 
of ice weighs about 45 lbs. 

Thus to cool 3750 lbs. of milk (or about the milk of 
one cow) to 32o Fahrt., it would require in summer 
2531 lbs. or about 1\ tons of ice per cow, giving about 
150 lbs. of butter (56 cubic feet of ice). (1) 

From the figures given above, any one can see the 
advantage of using ice. 

ADVANTAGES OF "DEEP SETTING" IN ICE. 

lo. It gives a perfectly sweet cream. 

2o. It gives a product of uniform qualify. 

3o. The best butter makers of the world regard deep 
setting in ice, as one of the best means of obtaining the 
finest and longest keeping butter. 

4o. It keeps the skim milk sweeter than any other 
system. 

(1) 56 cubic feet of ice is a block of about 3 ft. 10 inches long, 3 ft. 
10 inches wide, and 3 ft. 10 inches thick. 



C7 

DISADVANTAGES. 

lo. Towards the end of the milking period, when 
milk is heavy % it will not make a sufficient quantity of 
th> cream rise and therefore it must be discarded. (1) 

Tha proper method of treating heavy milk, is by 
shallow pans (small or large), or by the churning of 
whole milk, or still better by using a centrifugal 
separator. 

2o. Some people seem to think that the necessity of 
losing ice is a disadvantage, but it is nothing of the kind 
the superior yield, more than makes up for any extra 
trouble. 

We consider this the best system of milk setting for 
the average private dairy of Canada. 

HOW TO USE THIS SYSTEM. 

When milking use a covered milk pail provided with 
a strainer. (2) 

Immediately after milking, while the milk is still 
warm, strain it directly into the cans, and place 
the cans in the tank which has been previously half 
filled with cold water. Place a small temporary wooden 
cover over each separate, can, in order to prevent any ice 
from failing into the milk, while the operator is shovel- 
ing it into the tank. 

The ice should be broken to the size of large nuts, and 
enough of it should be used to fill the tank up, to 

it) It is not strictly necessary to discard the vessels provided, milk is 
s et in them to a depth of 2 or 3 inches only, during 3i hours at. 55° FabrU 

(2) There are several pails of this kind in the market. A covered milk- 
pail has a cover with a hole in it, through which a funnel provided will* 
a strainer is run or otherwise fixed. 



G3 

about the level of the milk in the cans. After a 
little while, when the milk in cooling has melted, a 
small portion of the ice, the overflow tap of the tank is 
opened, a little water runs out, and the tank is filled up 
again with ice to the same height as before. (1) 

The covers are then taken off the cans, and the milk 
remains exposed to the action of pure cold air, which 
carries off the animal odor and other impurities of the 
milk. When covers are used (and they should be used in 
all dairies when the air cannot be kept perfectly pure, and 
when the conditions as regards cleanliness are not excel- 
lent), they should not be placed on the cans, until the 
temperature of the milk has reached the temperature of 
the dairy. If the cans a~e covered before this, thecowey 
odor will remain in the milk. If, on the contrary, they 
are left uncovered after this, the milk will absorb any 
bad smell, that there may be in the dairy. 

The most economical plan is to leave the cans un- 
covered, but to cover the tanks. By this means, one cover 
does for all. This gives less trouble, costs less, and takes 
less ice than if the tanks are left uncovered. 

With the deep setting, the cream is " thin," but let it 
not be supposed that this makes it more di ffi.eu.lt to com- 
pletely skim the milk, for the coating of cream is easily 
removed from the skim milk. Still care must be taken 
The cream is taken off with the skimmer until the blue 
milk appears. 

After some practice, a person can skim a can in one or 
two minutes. By skimming from the top of the can, one 
is sure of getting pure cream, which has not been mixed 

(1) Tho water should be changed often enough to keep it perfectly 
pure and odorless. 



69 

with, impurities, such as are often found round the sides 
and the bottom of the cans. 

CABINET CREAMERS, VATS, PANS, Etc. 

As regards the great variety of cabinet or box creamers, 
vats and pans, constructed on the deep and shallow set- 
ting plan, we may state that some of them are very handy 
devices, but as we do not know that they have been scien- 
tifically tested by disinterested parties, we are in no posi- 
tion to express an opinion as to their respective value* 

THE CREAM GATHERING SYSTEM. 

ADVANTAGES. 

1 Q It is very economical, as it saves the drawing of 
milk to and from the creamery. 

2° The creamery building need not be expensive. 

3° The cream can be collected over a much larger ter- 
ritory, than it would be possible to carry the milk, if 
delivered at one factory. 

The dairyman or farmer generally realizes conside- 
rably more than he would, were he to manufacture but- 
ter on the farm, and sell it on his own account, 

DISADVANTAGES. 

10. The cleanliness and temperature of 300 (and even 
more) dairies are not generally uniform. Again some 
dairies will use ice, while others will use water at vary- 
ing degrees of temperature, as cooling mediums. There- 
fore the milk set in all these dairies is set in different 
conditions. This want of uniformity injures the quality 
and diminishes the quantity of the butter. 



70 

2o. In the best circumstances that is when all the 
farmers use ice water at 33° Farht., and the milk is set 
34 hours, this system gives about 14 per cent, less butter 
than the centrifugal — (see table No. 6 of Prof. J. N" 
Fjord's experiments, page 56). 

3o. Owing to the milk being set in different condi- 
tions as to temperature, &c, the cream so obtained varies 
very much in density, therefore it is very difficult 
to measure it accurately, and do justice to the patrons. 

4o. In the fall of the year, when milk is heavy, this 
system offers difficulties not generally understood. 

As already explained in the article on " Heavy 
milk " (1) there is sometimes no distinctly marked line 
between the cream and skim milk, consequently its mea- 
surement would be a difficult}/ of the most serious kind. 

Again, according to the result of Prof. Fjord's expe- 
riments (see page 53 table No. 3) from 50 to 75 per cent, 
of the cream would remain in the " heavy " milk if the 
deep setting were persevered in ; if the deep setting 
were superseded by shallow-pans, it would require two 
sets of vessels. It is true that his difficulty can be over- 
come to a certain extent by using the deep cans even 
for " heavy " milk, setting milk in them only to the 
depth of four inches. In this case it would be necessary 
to provide them with an extra gauge near the bottom. 

The cream gattering system may be used in thinly 
settled section, and sections where the herds are small. 

MANNER OF WORKING. 

Milk should be set in ice 33° Fahrt. at least 24 hours 
For details see page 67, on deep setting in ice. 

(I) This peculiarity of milk is found on one farm to day, and on the 
next to-morrow, &c. 



7*1 
THE CHUBNING- OF WHOLE MILK. 

ADVANTAGES. 

lo. The butter yield by this system is second only to 
that of the centrifugal. 

2o. It may also be used with advantage in the treat- 
meat of heavy milk. 

DISADVANTAGES. 

lo. The churning of whole milk requires too much 
work to be of any practical value, where large quanti- 
ties of milk are handled. 

2o. The butter, from churned milk, contains a little 
more cheesy substance than that obtained by other 
systems. 

HOW TO CHURN THE WHOLE MILK. 

The milk should stand at a high temperature, until 
slightly sour (artificial means may be taken to produce 
this effect), and churned at about 68 Fahrt. 

THE CENTEIFUOAL SYSTEM. 

ADVANTAGES. 

The centrifugal system offers the following advan- 
tages : 

lo. It allows of the transportation of milk to 

THE FACTORY, BUT ONCE A DAY. THUS HALF THE COST 
AJSTD TROUBLE OF MILK TRANSPORTATION IS SAVED. 

2o. IT SAVES SPACE. 

The space covered by a centrifugal is very small, not 
on an average more than 20 inches x 6 feet for the small 
sizes and 3J ft. x 8 for large sizes. 

3o. It SAVES TIME. 



72 

By this system 10,000 lbs. of milk will yield its cream 
in 4 or 5 hours. While by any other system, to yield 
considerably less cream it would require from 24 to 36 
hours. 

4o. It saves water and ice. 

With this system, water is used only for washing 
butter, cleaning purposes and for the engine. It must be 
remembered that with this system only the cream is 
cooled, while with other systems, the whole mass of 
milk and cream has to be cooled. Instead of cooling 100 
lbs. of milk the dairyman cools 20 lbs. of cream only. 

5o. By it the milk is saved from exposure to im- 
pure AIR, AND TO ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES. 

6o. It saves labor. 

7o. It gives a perfectly sweet cream in large quantities 
(two milkings can be skimmed at a time). This cream 
uniformly fresh, can be soured to suit the taste of the 
butter maker. 

8o. It gives a greater yield of butter. 

The latest experiments of Mr Fjord, show that the 
centrifugal system gave during 12 months, an aver, 
age of 23 per cent, more butter than the " Ice 10 hours " 
14 per cent, more than the "Ice 34 hours, 41 percent 
more than the " Water at 50 Fahrt. ", 14 per cent, more 
than the " Pans 34 hours " and 7 per cent, more than the 
1 Churning of milk ". 

9o. It gives a better quality of butter. 

However carefully the milking and straining have 
been done, the centrifugal extracts from the milk and 
cream, and consequently from the butter, a large amount 
of impurities, (1) which older methods could not remove* 

(1) Often as much as 0.15 per cent, of th j weight of new milk. 



73 

Therefore, centrifugal butter is sweeter and purer. 
It has also a higher melting point, (1) consequently it 
ought to keep longer than the ordinary product. 

lOo. It leaves the skim milk sweet for the 

CALVES AND SWJNE. 

DISADVANTAGES. 

It requires more outlay for plant. "When large cen- 
trifugal separators are used (or two small ones) and 
steam power is required, the running expenses are 
somewhat greater than with older methods. 

The larger the dairy, the less expense comparatively 
speaking. For very large cooperative creameries, the 
running expenses are not greater than by other methods, 
(if we except the cream gathering system.) 

Therefore, this system is the best adapted to large 
private, and to cooperative or public dairies. 

For comparative value of all the systems see tables of 
averages, Nos. 5 and 6, pages 55 and 56. 

(1) Melting point of centrifugal butter 98° Fahrt. 

" « m ordinary butter 94° Fahrt. 



Difference 4 



Fagi Milk Separator:. 



SPKEI 

The --■ - : . - I .."- - the I 

quai; : m ilk i if a skim per hom 

-mall quan-; in the 

skim _ r : - $ in 1 

b 
Thus a ma 7 can 

ring 1 it a minimum of : 

k ..: 

Z :.- - '. -"-.. - 

1 

l ii the inflow oi milk 

- line 

inning at minute, and at th: - 

Lsca] skimming - 

hour. If through 
uishes th . .'.: \ t be com LA 

part kim milk 

liminutk 
bntter 1 m milk. 

... s$ .. I take p] ..--- the -peed 

dim: ifng the inflow of milk 

instead of 4a lbs-, the h Ise 1 n 

lbs., main a mnch 1 _ 

-kim m: : 
A. e Les of expei m le to find th< 



fa 

between speed and inflow. The following law was dis' 
covered : 

The inflow should vary as the square of the speed. 

AVhen the number of revolutions which a given cen- 
trifugal must make, to completely skim a certain quan- 
tity of milk, is known, the number of revolutions, which 
it should make to skim any other quantity, is found by 
the following rule : 

Multiply the given number of pounds by the square (1) 
of the required speed, and divide the product by the 
square of the given speed. 

EXAMPLE. 

A dairyman having a centrifugal capable of skimming 
450 lbs. of milk per hour, when running at a speed of 
2,400 revolutions per minute, desires to know how many 
lbs. he can skim when running at 3,000 revolutions per 
minute. 

SOLUTION. 

As 2,400 2 : 3,000 ? :: 450: y 
2,400 2 = 5,760,000 
3,0, 2 = 9,000,000 
5,760,000 : 9,000,000 :: 450 r x 

9.000,000 x 450 

= 703 lbs. 

5,760,000 

In the above problem the given number of pounds 
was 450. The required speed was 3,000. of which the 

(t) The square of a number is obtained by multiplying it by itself; thus 
the square of 3 is 9, of 4 is 16, of 5 is 25, of 6 is 36, etc. 



77 



THE QUESTION OF SPEED IS OP GREAT IMPORTANCE. 

For example, with a milk flow of 435 lbs. per hour, 
the small size Burmeinster & Wain's separator left a 
minimum of 2 ounces of fat in the skim milk, but the 
quantity increased to 5J ounces, when the speed of the 
machine fell from 2,410 to 2,28^7 revolutions per minute 
and to a maximum of 6 J ounces, when the speed was still 
further reduced to 2,257 revolutions per minute. 

When is it advisable to buy a Centrifugal Milk 

Separator, and what size is it 

advisable to buy ? 

It is not, at present, advisable to buy a Centrifugal 
Separator for a dairy of less than twenty cows. 

Size. 

The question of size depends on the quantity of milk 
to be skimmed and on the time which the dairyman 
can afford for this operation. 

In large public dairies the time allowed for skimming 
should not exceed from four to six hours. In private 
dairies the work should be finished in from one to three 
hours. 

It is desirable to have at least one large size Separator 
in every creamery of any importance. Prof. Fjord's con- 
trol centrifugal for telling the amount of cream, in milk 
brought to the creamery, is adjustable to large Separa- 
tors only. No well managed public creamery can do 
without this instrument. 

Table showing the number and size of Separators ne- 
cessary to skim a given quantity of milk. 



Table 12. 



Creameries receiving daily 
from 



4 to 5,000 lbs. of milk 
6 to 8,000 " 



9 to 12,000 
13 to 15,000 
16 to 20,000 



Number and size of Separa- 
tors necessary. 



2 small Separators. 

1 small and 1 large Sepa- 
rator. 

2 large Separators. 



The largest Separator will skim from 12 to 1600 lbs 
per hour. The small Separator from 4 to 700 lbs. 

If a small Separator will do the work in a reasonable 
time get a small one. 

If a large one will do, it is preferable not to try a large 
one, but rather to buy two small ones. For if one gets 
out of order, the second can be made to do all the work 
while the first is being repaired. This rule does not 
apply to large establishments ; it is better to have two 
or three large Separators, than four or six small ones. We 
give below our reasons. 

lo. It takes less power to drive two large Separators 
than four small ones. 

2o. Four small Separators will require far more care 
in regulating the milk flow, than two large Separators. 

3o. Four small Separators will require far more care 
in regulating the speed, in looking after, in oiling, in 
cleaning, than two large Separators. 

4o. Four small Separators will cost more to buy, to 
set up, to keep in order, and to run than two large 
Separators. 



19 

5o. Four small Separators require more space than 
two large ones. 

ADYICE TO INTENDING PUECHASEES OF THE 
CENTEIFUGAL. 

Some one asks which Centrifugal to buy ? We say 
buy a good one. 

Points of a good Centrifugal Separator. 

lo. A good Separator should be safe and strong, and 
its workmanship perfect. 

2o. Its motion should be easy and steady. 

3o. The foundation should be solid, and the revolving 
parts well protected. 

4o. It should require but a moderate degree of power 
in proportion to the work done. 

5o. It should be easy to take apart and to clean. There 
should be but few pieces to take apart. 

60. Its construction should be simple and plain, and 
the manner of working readily understood. 

To. It should be built so as to regulate the density oi 
cream (getting thin or thick cream), while in operation. 

80. It should thoroughly skim the first and last milk 
contained in the drum. 

9o. The separated liquids should be discharged in 
good condition. 

lOo. The machine should be cheap in the first cost, 
and cheap to put up. But the main point is that the 
machine be good, for a poor troublesome Separator, even 
cheap, will be more expensive in the long run, than a 
good one at a higher price. 



8Q 



DEFECTS TO BE GUARDED AGAINST IN 
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS. 

lo. Liability to lose speed through any cause, shak 
ing for instance. (This is a very serious defect.) 

2o. Sprinkling of milk and cream, 

3o. Suction of cream by air into the skim milk. 

4o. Loss of oil and heating, through imperfect means oi 
oiling the bearings. 

POWER REQUIRED TO RUN CENTRIFUGAL 
SEPARATORS. 

It is often supposed that centrifugal separators re- 
quire much power to run them. This is a mistake. It 
takes less than three horse power to start the largest 
separators. Having reached full speed it requires much 
less power to keep it agoing. For f his reason, several 
machines can be run by a power little greater than that 
which is necessary to start one or two large ones. 

Of course, in this case, the machines are not all started 
together. The first is set going, and is got well under- 
way before the second is started ; when these two 
have reached the highest speed a third is set going, 
etc. 

In dairies where two small separators are used the 
dairyman should provide 3 or 4 horse power. This is 
more than the power absolutely necessary, but it is 
always wise to have some spare power. In large 
creameries from 6 to 10 horse power is required. 



81 



REMARKS ON THE USE OF ANIMAL POWER 

IN RUNNING- CENTRIFUGAL 

SEPARATORS. 

In using a horse to run a separator, it is well to re- 
member that the strain on the animal depends : 

1. On the speed of the separator. For example a 
horse could easily run a churn containing from 60 to 
80 lbs. of cream and a small Burmeinster & Wain 
separator, at a speed of about 2200 revolutions per mi- 
nute, while the same horse would have all he could do 
to drive the same separator at a speed of 3000 revolu- 
tions per minute. 

2o. On the time required to perform the day's work. 
Some farmers have milk for an hour daily. Others have 
milk enough for two or three hours, work. The less milk, 
the shorter is the time of the operation, and the more 
strain the horse could stand. 

3o. On the kind of horse-gear used. 

4o. On the speed at which the horse is made to go (1). 
In order to diminish the strain, use a larger pulley and 
decrease the speed of the horse. With a sweep power, 
the horse's pace should be regulated so as to cover lees 
than three feet of ground per second. 

Prof. Fjord's experiments with the small separator of 
Burmeinster & Wain gave the following results : 

With 2000 revolutions a minute and to skim from 2 
to 300 lbs. per hour it requires J horse power ; 

(1) It must not he forgotten that the speed of the separator, and the 
speed of the horse are two different things. The horse may be and should 
be (if the work is to last a long time) traveling very slowly, while the 
machine is working very rapidly. 

6 



82 

With 2400 revolutions a minute and to skim from 3 
to 400 lbs, per hour it requires j horse power . 

With 2800 revolutions a minute and to skim from 3 
to 400 lbs. per hour it requires 1 horse power. 

THINGS TO BE REMEMBERED IN USING A 
MILK SEPARATOR. 

lo. Start the machine slowly, skim the first and last 
contents according to directions given on page 28. 

2o. Let the speed be constant. For this purpose, 
every centrifugal milk separator should be provided 
with : lo A speed indicator attached to the spindle (1) 
so that the operator may ascertain the actual number 
of revolutions of the drum ; 2o A belt strainer, to be 
used when the machine is losing sp.?ed. 

So. Let the inflow be constant. For this purpose 
some means of controlling the inflow should be adopt- 
ed. Prof. Fjord's controlling funnel is the best means 
we know of (see description, page 26). 

4o. When the speed decreases, diminish the in- 
flow ; WHEN THE SPEED INCREASES INCREASE THE 

inflow. A decrease of 10 °/ , 20 p /o, 30 °/ in the given 
speed of the Burmeinster & Wain separator, must be at- 
tended by a decrease of 20 °/ OJ 35 / o , 50 Q / in the milk 
inflow per hour. An increase of 10 °/ , 20 e / , 30 °/ in 
the speed must also be followed by an increase of 20 °/ 0l 
40 Q / , 10 °/ in the quantity of milk worked per hour, if 
the same amount of butter is expected from a given 
quantity of milk. 

(I) We say spin lie and not the main shaft, advisedly, because the 
revolutions of the latter do not represent accurately the revolutions of 
the drum. 



83 

5o. Skim: the milk while waem. Tf this be inconve- 
nient, the milk can be warmed to 88° Fahrt. before skim- 
ming. 

60. For cold milk let the inflow be J less than the 
inflow for warm milk. If a machine skims 300 lbs of 
hot milk in an hour, it will skim 200 lbs of cold milk 
in an equal time. 

•70. Keep working parts very well oiled. Use 
for this purpose the best lard oil or neat's foot. 

80, clean immediately after using. 

EELATIYE VALUE OF DIFFERENT CENTRI- 
FUGAL SEPARATORS. 

In determining the comparative value of rival Separa- 
tors, it is necessary lo. to determine what good skim- 
ming is; 2o. to ascertain how large a quantity of milk each 
Separator can skim when leaving a given quantity of 
butter fat in the skim milk ; 80. to see how long 
these can be run at their highest speed. 

In Denmark the standard for average skimming by 
the Centrifugal is, to leave 0.15 of a pound of butter 
fat in the skim milk. (This is equal to a trifle less than 
2£ ounces.) In Germany it is 0.35. (This is equal to a 
trifle more than 5 J ounces.) 

We believe that between 0.20 and 0.25 is the proper 
standard — that is to say between 3 and 4 ounces. 

As some of our readers may think that there is not a 
great difference in the value of two machines, which, 
when skimming, the same quantity per hour leave, the 
one 2 J ounces [.15] and the other 5 J ounces [.35] of but- 
ter fat in the skim milk, it is well to remark that in 
some cases, if the inflow into the machine which is lea- 



84 

ving 2J ounces were increased so as to leave of ounces ; 
the inflow would be increased between 300 and 400 lbs- 
an hour. 

This is a very important consideration and should not 
be lost sight of in buying. 

We give below the result of a series of experiments 
made by Prof. J. N. Fjord to ascertain the exact capa- 
city of the four undermentioned Separators in the fol- 
lowing circumstances. [The Burmeinster & Wain small 
and large sizes, the Neilsen & Petersen and the De Laval 
Separators.) 

lo. When each of the four Separators is extracting 
from the milk an equal quantity of cream of the same 
richness, [that is containing the same percentage of 
butter fat] and leaving the same quantity of fat in the 
skim milk. 

2o. When it is desired to leave a still larger propor- 
tion than 3 or 4 ounces of butter fat in a 100 lbs. of 
skim milk. 

On page 85 we give the result of these experiments 
in table No. 13. 

We see that during the period from April to July, and 
for the smallest quantity of milk worked per hour, the dif- 
ferences between the "minimum" and the " maximum"(l) 
quantities of butter fat, left in the skim milk, amount to 
1, f v ozs. and to T 9 ^- and if ozs. during the month of 
September. 

This comparatively small difference shows the uni- 
form reliability of the Centrifugal Milk Separator when 
properly used. 

(I) The figures in the column of averages are not obtained from the 
figures of the minimum and maximum only, but from a whole series 
oT experiments. 



85 

TABLE No. 



13. 



Note. — In order to avoid large 
fractions, we have prefixed to the 
number of ounces the sign minus, 
when the proper figure is a trifle 
less than the given one. We have 
used the sign plus when the proper 
figure is a trifle more. 



April nncl July 1882. 
A Burm. & Wain's centrifugal 
ismall size) 

1. 290 lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour 

2. 435 lbs. do do do 

B De Laval's centrifugal 

1. 300 lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour 

2. 450 lbs. do do do 
C Nielsen & Petersen's centrifugal 

1. 49:; lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour 

2. 810 lbs. do do do 
D Burmeinster & Wain's centrifu- 
gal (large size) 

1. 870 lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour , 

2. 1280 lbs do do do 

September 1882 
a Burmeinster & Wain's separator 
(small size) 

1. 290 lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour 

2. 435 lbs. do do do 

3. 580 lbs. do do do 

4. 720 lbs. do do do 
b Burmeinster & Wain's milk sepa- 
rator (large size) 

1. 780 lbs. of milk skimmed per 

hour 

2. 1580 lbs. do do do 



02 S 



2410 



6000 



1490 



1950 



2410 



1800 



Percentage of butter 

fat left in the skim 

milk. 



—2 
4 
6 14/2 
1 1 9 /25 



V5 






S-j 



-n 

-2i 

2 2/25 

3 9/25 

+ 11 

2 1^/25 

It 

3 9/25 



I! 

+ 3| 

6 2/ 25 

— 10| 

2 14/25 
9 7/->5 



II 

•A ° 



H 
6* 

2 2/ 25 

3 1/5 

-n 

6| ' 



—2 
-4| 
+ 7i 

1216/23 

3 1/2 
1216/25 



Q S 



+ 1 

l 13/25 
i 89/100 

8 /l0 
16/25 



'100 



1 21/50 
239/iQO 

12 /25 
3 9/25 



With a milk flow of 435 lbs. per hour, the small size 
Burmeinster & Wain Separator left a " minimum " of 
2} ozs. and a " maximum " of 6J ozs. of butter fat in 
the skim milk. 

With a milk flow of 1,280 lbs. per hour, the large 
size Burmekister & Wain Separator, leit a. tk minimum " 
of 3^ ozs., and a " maximum " oi GJ ozs. of butter 
fat in the skim milk. 

Vv r ith a milk flow of 1,580 lbs. per hour, J .he same size 
Separate! jeft a minimum of 9ts ozs. and a maximum of 
l£jj o/.s <A ouaer fat in the skim milk. 

In average uf the whole series of experiments in the 
lsr case was 8J ounees ; in the 2nd 4J ounees, and in 
the 3id 11^ ounees. 

From t-ie experiments made from April to July, the 
Separators if classified according to efficiency, should be 
found in the following order : 



Taple No. 



FOR THE SMALI EST QV ■ N'HTY OF VIM' WORKED PER HOUR 



Frar.t o r a lb .! 
of butter ~atl T 
lPflinlOOibs.1 Inounces 

of skim milk. 



Nielsen & Petersen 

The small Burin. & Wain. 

" large " 
The De Laval 




13 OZS. 

Almost 2 ozs 
'2 4/ 10 ozs. 
2| ozs. 



2 2 /loOZS. 



8f 



Table No. 14. Continued ;— 
FOR THE LARGEST QUANTITY OF MILK WORKED PER HOUR. 



Nielsen & Petersen 

The small Burra. & Wain 
" large " " 
The De Laval- 



810 

435 

1,280 

450 



lbs. per hour 



0.18 
0.22 
0.27 
0.31 



1 1 ounces. 
5 •« 



Average 



0.24 



3 "/I 



The average quantity of butter fat left in the skim 
milk amounts to 2 T \ ozs. in the case of the first four 
Separators on the list, and to Sji ozs. in the case of 
the last four. 

This last figure is nearly ^5°/ larger than the first. 

It is then safe to say, that an increase of 50°/^ in the 
quantity of milk worked per hour, produces an increase 
of 75°/ c in the amount of butter fat left in the skim 
milk. 

This increase amounts to about If ozs. of butter 
fat, and is equivalent to a decrease of 1 3 ozs. in 
the yield of butter per 100 lbs. of milk, that is if the 
" smallest " quantity of milk worked per hour gives 4 
lbs, of butter per 100 lbs. of milk, the " largest " quan- 
tity of milk worked per hour gives only 3.90 lbs. or 3 
lbs, 14 ounces, and instead of 25 lbs. of milk to a lb. of 
butter, it would take 25 f, or f of a lb. more. 

In a series of experiments made to test the relative 
value of the Nielsen & Petersen and Lefeldt Centrifugal, 
it was found, that a loss of butter fat amounting to 
13J ounces took place for every hour the Lefeldt Cen- 
trifugal was worked. This loss was due to a certain 
amount of cream being drawn into the skim milk by 
air. This defect is known under the name of " Suction 
of cream ". 



6S 

We do not know whether this defect in the Lefeldt 
Separator has since been remedied. 

POWEE REQUIRED TO DRIVE THE BURMEINSTER AND 
WAIN AND DE LAVAL MILK SEPARATORS. 



We now give, in tabular form the result of a series, of 
experiments made by Prof. Fjord to determine the 
power necessary to drive the Burmeinster & Wain and 
De Laval milk separators. 

DYNAMOMETER EXPERIMENTS. 

Table No. 15. 
These figures show the Separator's own consumption of power only. 



With the use of Steam 
Power. 



Lbs. of milk 
per hour. 



Speed, revolu- 
tions 
per minute. 



Horse Power 
required. 



Burmeinster & Wain's Centri- 
fugal (-mall size) 

De Laval's Centrifugal 

Burmeinster & Wains Centri 
i'ugal (small size) 

De Laval's Centrifugal 



700 
700 

450 
450 



3.000 
7,000 

2,400 
5,600 



75 
1.03 

0.53 

0.70 



Table No. 16. 
This table shows the full consumption of motive power, horse power 
and gearing included. 



With the use of Horse 
Power. 


Lbs. of milk 
per hour. 


Speed, revolu- 
tions 
per minute. 


Elorse Power 
required. 


Burmeinster & Wain's Centri- 
fugal (small size) 


700 

700 

450 
450 


3,000 
7,000 

2,400 

5,600 


0.88 






Burmeinster & Wain's Gentri- 


63 




0.81 







89 

The experiment, with the De Laval machine, running 
at a speed of 7,000 revolutions per minute could not be 
carried out with a common horse, as it was unable to 
keep up the speed, the power required being calculated 
to be 1.20 horse power, — 0.80 horse power is reckoned 
to represent the outside amount of work that we can 
expect from a horse, if the strain is to be kept up for 
some time. 

Therefore, an inflow of 450 lbs. of milk per hour, and 
a speed of 5,600 revolutions per minute, must be taken 
as the maximum capacity of De Laval's separator, driven 
by horse power. 

Experiments showing the relative merits of the Burmeinster & Wain and 
De Laval Milk Separators, as regards Speed, Consumption of power, 
Percentage of butter fat in skim milk, and inflow. 

Table No. 17. 



Same quantity of milk worked 1 Unequal consumption of motive 
per hour. } power. 




Percentage of Fat in the Skim Milk. 




In special 
trial. 


In 200 lbs. 
of milk. 


In all the 
milk skim'ed 
in one hour. 


1st Series, 450 lbs. per hoar. 

A— Burmeinster & Wain Speed, 

2,400 ; power, 0.63 h. p 

B— LavaLSpeed, 5,600; power, 0.81. 

Ind Series, 700 lbs. per hour. 

A — Burmeinster & Wain Speed, 

3,000 ; power, 0.88 


0.25 
0.23 

30 
29 


021 
0.23 

0.22 
29 


0.23 
0.33 

0.28 


B— LavaLSpeed, 7,000 ; power, 1.20 


0.29 



In the " special trial " the De Laval had the advantage. 
In the trial " In 200 lbs.", the Burmeinster & Wain had 



90 



the advantage. In the trial " In all the milk in an hour ", 
the results were the same. 

The general result shows that De Laval's milk sepa- 
rator requires 29 per cent, more power than Burmeinster 
& Wain's in the first series, and 36 per cent, in the 
second series. 

Table No 18. 



The same quantity of milk worked 
per hour. 



Same consumption of motive 
power. 



3rd Series, 450 lbs. per hour. 

A — Burmeinster & Wain Speed, 

3,000 revolutions ; 0.81 horse 
power 

B— Laval.. Speed, 5,600 revolutions ; 
0.81 horse power 

klh Series, 600 lbs per hour. 

A — Burmeinster & Wain Speed, 

2,950 revolutions ; 0.83 horse 
power 

B— Laval.. Speed, 5,600 revolutions ; 
0.83 horse power 



Percentage of Fat in the Skim Milk- 



Special 
trial. 



0.14 
0.23 



0.23 

0.38 



In about 

200 lbs. of 

milk. 



0.12 
0.27 



17 
0.36 



In all the 
milk skim'ed 
in one hour. 



0.13 
0.25 



0.21 

37 



In this case Burmeinster & Wain's milk Separator 
had the advantage all through. In the special trial, 
Laval's milk Separator leaves : 

In the first series, tt or 64 per cent. ; in the second 
series, if or 65 per cent, more fat in the skim milk 
than Burmeinster & Wain's. 

These differences correspond to 1 J and 2 J ozs. of fatty- 
matter in 100 lbs. of skim milk, and show, in reckoning 



91 



25 lbs. of milk to a lb. of butter, that Burmeinster & 
Wain's milk Separator gives from 2 J to 3f per cent* 
more butter than De Laval's. 



Table No. 19. 



Unequal work per 
hour. 



Equal consumption of motive 
power. 



bill Series. Power for each 
Separator, 0.81 horse power. 

A— Burm. & Wain... Speed, 2,875 re- 
volutions ; work, 565 lbs. per hr 

B — Laval. .Speed, 5,600 revolutions 
work, 450 lbs. per hour 



Percentage of Fat in the Skim Milk. 



Special 
trial. 



021 
0.24 



In 200 lbs 
of milk. 



In all the 
milk skim'ed 
in one hour. 



0.17 
0.25 



0.20 

0.24 



These last experiments clearly show that, with the 
same amount of motive power, the small milk separator 
of Burmeinster & Wain can skim 115 lbs., or about 25 
per cent, more milk than De Laval's, and leave much 
less fat in the skim milk. And with the same completeness 
of skimming and the same consumption of power, Prof. 
Fjord says, that Burmeinster & Wain's separator can 
skim 150 lbs. or 33 per cent, more milk than De Laval's. 

Summing up, the result of the comparison may be 
shortly described as follows : — 

1st. With the same completeness of skimming and the 
same quantity of milk worked per hour, De Laval's 
separator requires one-third more power. 

2nd. With the same completeness of skimming and 
the same consumption of power, Burmeinster & Wain's 
small (B) separator skims one- third more milk than De 
Laval's. 



92 

3rd. "With the same quantity of milk worked pe. hour 
and the same consumption of power, De Laval's leaves 
64 to 65 per cent, more fat in the skim miik. 

The same report shows that Burmeinster & "Wain's 
large size separator requires 1| horse power. 

HOW TO SKIM HOT MILK. 

Milk fresh and warm from the cow, is in the best con- 
dition to yield its cream by centrifugal force. If it is 
allowed to cool, it leses a part of its cream yielding 
power. If run cold into the Separator, other conditions 
being equal, a larger quantity of fat will be left in tne 
skim milk. 

Nevertheless, when milk has to be transported to a 
creamery it is impossible to avoid cooling it, because it 
is transported only once a day. 

The loss caused by cooling the milk can be avoided 
by following carefully the following rule : 

lo Aerate the evening's milk ; 2o. Cool it to 60° 
Fahrt., and keep it all night in cold water , 3o. Bring it 
on the following morning, with the morning's milk to 
the creamery. It is better to bring the two milkings in 
separate cans. At the creamery, weigh the milk, empty 
it into a vat, mix it well in order to have it of uniform 
richness, heat it up to about88° Fahrt., and pass it through 
the separator in this condition. The operator should cool 
the cream immediately on its discharge from the separa- 
tor to 45° Fahrt. (1). 

(1) It must be borne in mind that the cream is cooled to counteract the 
injurious effect, of healing the milk. Therefore the higher the milk has 
been heated the lower the cream must be cooled. For every degree 
higher than 88° Fahrt. cool another degree below 45° Fahrt. 



98 

Any neglect to cool the cream will be attended with 
various disadvantages, lo. The cream will contain an 
extra amount of cheesy matter, the effect of which is to 
injure the quality of the butter ; 2o. It will prevent the 
complete churning of the cream, thereby diminishing, 
the quantity of the butter, 

HOW TO SKIM COLD MlLK TO THE 
BEST ADVANTAGE. 

When the operator is not pressed for time, he can 
skim cold ir i'k nearly as well as warm milk, by diminihs- 
ing the flow about J, or by increasing the speed pro- 
portionately. 

We give below a table with experiments on this 
subject. 

A quantity of evening milk amounting to 1350 lbs. 
having been well mixed, was divided into three equal 
parts of 450 lbs, one of which was skimmed immediately 
after milking, and the other two portions, being cooled to 
52° Farht., were kept over night. The next morning, on# 
portion was skimmed while cold, and the other after 
being previously heated to 104° Farht. 

We give the result of these experiments in table 
No. 20. 

The milk skimmed immediately after milking gave 
3.72 lbs. of butter, there remained in the skim milk, three 
and one fifth ounces of butter fat. 

The milk skimmed, after having been cooled and heat- 
ed, gave but 3,51 lbs. of butter and, singular to say, the 
same amount three and a fifth ounces of butter fat re- 
mained in the skim milk. It should have left 6J ounces. 
But it was discovered that the portion of fat which 



9-1 



Quantity of butter fat left in 

the skim milk, obtained from 

100 lbs. of whole milk. 


Evening's milk skimmed 
next morning. 


Cooled to 52° Fahrt. 

in the evening, and 

warmed to 104° Fahrt. 

next morning. 


o 

o 

CO 


Cooled to 
52° Fahrt. 


N 
O 
GO 
-M 
QQ 

o 

B 
5 


Immediately after milking. 

Temperature of milk, 

8*7° Fahrt. 


<D 
O 

O 

Ho 
CO 


m 
W 

o 
o 

r-l 

% 

O 
PS . 

Pld 

g S 

o 

9 

P 

o 
Ph 

j 


Evening's milk skimmed 
next morning. 


Cooled to 52° Fahrt 

in the evening, and 

warmed to 104 Q Fahrt. 

next morning. 


3.51 


Cooled to 
52° Fahrt. 


CO 


Immediately after milking. 

Temperature of milk, 

S1° Fahrt. 


CI 

co 








450 lbs. per hour 



95 

could not be accounted for, 3 J ounces, had been lost in 
churning. It was found in the butter milk. This loss 
was due to the cream not having been cooled as it left 
the machine 

In another series of experiments, where the cream 
was immediately cooled, there was no loss in the chur- 
ning, and the heated milk gave as good a yield as the 
milk skimmed immediately after milking. 



What to do with the skim milk. 



In places where large creameries are established, the 
question naturally arises what to do with the skim milk. 
The answer to this question must vary to a certain ex- 
tent with the locality. 

In this country I do not think it is advisable to con- 
vert the skim milk into skim cheese, at least at present, 
because : 

lo. The demand for skim cheese is yet very limited. 

2o. The methods for making skim cheese are not gene- 
rally understood in this country. 

3o. The making of skim cheese, as generally made in 
the United States and Canada, is liable to destroy the 
splendid reputation of Canadian cheese on foreign 
markets. (1) 

We think, the best thing to do with the skim milk, is 
to use it as food for calves and swine. We give below 
our reasons. 

lo. We import large quantities of po.k. 

2o. There is a large demand for pork and beef in Eu- 
rope. 

3o, The using of the skim milk in this manner has 
for result to restore to the soil, in the shape of manure, a 
pare of the fertilizing substances, which had been drawn 
therefrom. 

(1) We do not find anything objectionable in skim-cheese, if it is made 
and sold as such. In Holland and other European countries it bears a 
special form, by which it is easily distinguished. 



TIEUE 



CONSTRUCTION 



OF 



ICE HOUSES 

OF ALL KINDS AND DESCRIPTIONS, 
WITH A CHAPTER ON FREEZERS, ROOMS AND CELLARS 

FOR GOLD STORAGE. 



The Construction of Ice Houses 



The information contained in this chapter has been 
compiled from the best foreign and American authorities, 
and from our own experience ; and we have no doubt, it 
will prove of some interest to dairymen and farmers. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

Water freezes at a temperature slightly below 32° 
Fahrt. Ice melts at a temperature ever so little above 
32° Fahrt. 

The three enemies of ice are water, heat and mois- 
ture. "Water and moisture are more destructive of ice 
than ordinary atmospheric heat ; at least when the ice 
is protected from the direct rays of the sun. 

In building an ice house, therefore, the ice must be 
protected from these three things. 

Moisture generally comes from the bottom of an ice 
house, and heat from the sides and the top. 

Moisture in an ice house may be produced by two 
causes : by the atmosphere and by some defect in th- 
bottom of the building. 

That which is caused by the atmosphere must be car 
ried off by properly constructed ventilators ; that which 
comes from the foundation, must be carried off by good 
drainage. 

SIZE OF AN ICE HOUSE. 

For dairy use it will of course depend on the quantity 
of milk, cream and butter handled daily. 

We can give no special rule, but the following figures 



100 

may guide farmers and dairymen, as to the size of the 
buildings required for their special wants. 

In an ice house, where the ice is packed closely, ice 
men generally allow about 45 lbs of ice for every cubic 
foot of space, or 45 cubic feet to the ton. Where the ice 
is loosely packed, they allow about 40 lbs of ice for every 
cubic foot of space, or about 50 cubic feet io the ton. 

Table showing, in cubic feet, the quantity of ice required 
for setting milk 24 hours, in single sided tanks, ac- 
cording as the ice is closely or loosely packed. 



100 lbs of 


milk 


or 


cream 


200 « 


" 






< 


300 « 


" 






i 


400 « 


" 






1 


500 « 


" 






1 


600 " 


< i 






' 


700 " 


«« 






1 


800 " 


<< 






' 


900 " 


u 






< 


1000" 


" 






i 


2000'- 


" 






1 



per day 



From Mav (o November or 180 davs. 



Ice elo?ely packed 
or at 45 cubic feel 
to the ton, about 
45 fbs to the cubic 
foot. 



Cubic 
feet 



ons 



lc> loosely packed 

; or at 50 cubic feet 

to i he ton, about 

40 lbs to the cubic 

foot. 



Cubic 

fe^t 



270 

540 
810 
1080 
1350 
1620 
1800 
'2 1 GO 
2430 
2700 
5400 



Ton* 



6 


300 


12 


600 


18 


900 


O ', 


1200 


30 


1500 


36 


1800 


42 


2 1 00 


48 


240 i 


54 


2700 


60 


3000 


120 


6000 



6 
12 
18 
24 
30 
36 
42 
48 
54 
60 
120 



In order to find out the storing capacity of an ice 
house multiply the length, width and height together, the 
result is the capacity in cubic feet. By dividing the 
number of cubic feet by 45 or 50, the capacity in tons is 
obtained. Thus a house 10 feet long, 10 feet wide and 
12 feet high = 1200 cubic feet. This divided by 45 or 



101 

50 according as the ice is closely or loosely packed gives 
26f or 24 tons. 

Other things being equal, the higher an ice house is 
built, the better the ice keeps. 

We give below a few figures on the dimensions of ice 
houses. 

We do not advise to build an ice house smaller than 
8 x 8, 10 feet high, inside measurement. 

Storing capacity of ice houses of different sizes. 



Length, width, height, 
in feet. 


Capacity in cubic feet and tons. 




Cubic feet. 


Tons. 


10 x 10 x 10 
12 x 12 x 13 
12 x 15 x 15 
12 x 18 x 16 
20 x 20 x 16 


1000 
1872 
2700 
3456 
6400 


22 

411 

60 
77 
142 



SHRINKAGE. 



In deciding the question of size one important thing 
must be considered, that is the waste known as shrink- 
age. 

The larger the ice house, the less waste in proportion. 
In a well constructed ice house of 165 tons capacity or 
7500 cubic feet, the waste should not be greater than 
15 per cent, or 25 tons. 

In one whose capacity is only 28 tons or 1250 cubic 
feet, the waste should not exceed 25 per cent, or 7 tons. 

In building an ice house, build it rather too large than 
too small. 



102 



SITE AND DRAINAGE 



The house should stand, as much as possible, by it- 
self, in a. high, airy, and sunny position (1) because such 
a site requires but little drainage. "When such a position 
is not to be had. and when the soil is not of a sandy, 
gravelly or otherwise porous nature, the drainage should 
receive the builder's most careful attention. On porous 
soil, an outside ditch is all that is necessary. 

Loamy and heavy land should be thoroughly under- 
drained. In the case of small houses, these drains should 
be round the outside of the buildings. In large ice houses, 
and when the land is very wet, it is sometimes necessary 
to carry the drains under the buildings. 






What are known as " French drains " (see fig, 40, 41 
and 42) trenches filled with stones, answer admirably, 
and are cheap besides. 

These trenches should be dug across the place where 
the ice house is to be built, with a grade of descent of 
at least one quarter of an inch to the foot. They should 



(1) This exposure to the sun and air, will not be detrimental, as many 
suppose, for if the house is properly constructed and the ice sufficiently 
protected, the heat cannot penetrate it to any great extent, whilst the ex- 
posure will serve to absorb vapor and dampness, which are more detri- 
mental than the heat outsi le of the house. 



103 

be two feet. wide (or more), filled with small stones up 
to within three inches of the level of the ground, which 
three inches should be filled with shavings or some other 
material that will keep the dirt out. The end of the 
drain should be carried a fair distance from the building. 
Tiles or wood may be used for the same purpose, 
but in this case the drain should terminate by a pipe 
shaped like a Y, to form a trap. This to a certain extent 
prevents the air from entering. 

BEST MATERIAL FOR AN ICE HOUSE. 

Wood is the cheapest and best material for building 
an ice house. Its porous character is favorable to free 
evaporation, and evaporation is the key to the secret of 
keeping any building dry. The most porous wood is 
the best. The kinds most in favor are hemlock and the 
three branches of the pine family, namely spruce and 
white and yellow pine. The main points aimed at in 
the selection is their relative durability. 

Stone or brick retains the vapors and causes sweat- 
ing, which melts the ice. 

THE BOTTOM OF AN ICE HOUSE. 

The bottom of an ice house should be as dry as pos- 
sible, and at the same time impervious to heat, air, damp- 
ness and water, for if through defective drainage, the 
ice is constantly immersed in water, the waste will be 
much greater at the bottom of the ice house, from this 
cause, than at the top from the heat of the sun. It would 
therefore, hardly be possible to give the subject of drain- 
age and construction of the bottom too much attention, 
when houses are first built. 



104 

FOUNDATIONS 

Large houses should stand on a stone foundation, al- 
though it is the custom with many builders to do away 
with the wall, and rest the sills directly on the ground. 
In low places the sills rest on piles. "When they rest on 
the ground, the sills should be of cedar or white pine. 

If a stone foundation be laid, it should be of masonry 
of the best description; it should be carried below the 
line of frost, and one foot above the surface of the ground. 
"When a stone foundation is laid, the sills may be of the 
same material as the rest of the building. 

THE FLOORING OF AN ICE HOUSE. 

The drain and foundation having been constructed, 
level the ground inside. If there be any slope, let it be 
towards the drain. Cover the ground to a depth of at least 
10 inches, with a bed of fine gravel, cinders, shavings, 
tan or sawdust. ("We prefer cinders.) 

Lay stringers 4x4 about 3 feet apart, and fill and pack 
well between stringers with cinders or sawdust. Over 
these stringers nail 2 inch boards. They should neither 
be tongued and grooved nor tightly fitted together. 
This is to allow the water to trickle down between them, 
and thus escape. 

A TIGHT FLOOR. 

When ice houses are built in connection with dairies 
etc. and it is desirable to utilize the drippings, a tight 
floor is put in. This can be made of tongued and grooved 
boards closely fitted together, after the bottom has been 
prepared in the manner previously described. Asphalt, 
cement or concrete floors may also be constructed. 



105 

A tight floor should slope from two sides to the 
middle. A small groove, along the middle of the floor, 
receives the water, and conducts it to an end ol the 
building from which a pipe carries it to the cold room 
or dairy. The end of the pipe should be bent in the 
form of a Y, so as to prevent the air from entering. 

WALLS. 

The best ice houses have three shells, an inside, a 
middle, and an outside shell. The space between the 
inside and the middle shells varies, with the size of the 
ice house. The smaller the house, the greater should be 
the inner space. The smaller and lower the ice house, 
the less should be the outer space, or draught cham- 
ber. 

HOW TO PUT UP THE WALLS. 

FOR LARGE HOUSES. 

The uprights should consist of stout 8 x 10 posts around 
the outside, at intervals of 12 feet placed on sills 6 x 10. 
On these posts, the frame work and rafters of the roof 
will rest. Immediately on the inside line of these posts 
3x6 studdings, should be firmly placed at a distance 
of 3 feet apart. Commencing about 3 inches from the 
bottom, (so as to leave an open space) nail weather boards 
on the outside of the posts, (not to the studs) up to the 
eaves. Commencing close at the bottom, nail to the 
posts and studding on the inside, tongued and grooved 
boards. They should be fitted as closely as possible. 

Upon the inside of this wall stretch a sheating oi 

felt. (1) 

\l) Common roofing felt, or better Sackelt's sheeting consisting of a layej 
of cement between two layers of manilla paper. It costs $ ct. a square- 
foot. 



106 

Then place against this papered wall studs of 3 x 8 at 
the same distance apart as the first. From stud to stud, 
stretch another course of manilla sheating, and over this 
commencing at the bottom, nail tongued and grooved 
boards. They sho >ld be joined as closely as possible. 

The space between the two interior walls.known as the 
packing chamber,should be filled (when convenient) (1) 
with dry saw-dust very -tightly packed. If sawdust can- 
not be had use dry tan, shavings or chaff. 

The outside space, called the draft chamber (fig. 48) 
which is in this ease about 10 inches, has an opening at 
the bottom to allow the air to enter and at the top, to 
allow it to escape. Its purpose is : to prevent the rays 
of the sun from striking directly on the walls ; to pro- 
tect the walls from rain and to afford better ventilation. 

Some of the largest Canadian builders construct their 
walls in the following simple manner : They place on 
the sills, uprights 3 or 4 inches by 10 or 12 inches from 
3 to 4 feet apart. Over these they nail rough boards 
and fill in with saw-dust. 

In many cases the draught chamber is dispensed with. 
When this is done, the space between the walls of the 
packing chamber should be at least 18 inches. 
WALLS FOR SMALL HOUSES. 

The walls for these, should be built upon the same 
plan as ior large houses, (smaller timber should be used 
than for large houses.) The difference is that the space for 
the packing chamber, should be considerably greater, and 
that for the draught chamber considerably less. For an 
ice house 15 feet high, the draught chamber should be 
from 2 to 5 inches. 

(I) When it is not convenient to fill the space, be careful in boarding 
ap to make it as air tight as possible, this is known as a dead air chamber. 



iot 



Thus in a small building, the packing chamber should 
be about 14 inches and the draught chamber five. 

ROOF AND VENTILATORS 

A good water-tight roof of reasonable pitch should 
be placed over the walls, Wx>d and shingles are the 
best materials to use. For those desiring a model roof 
see fig. 48 with description. 

When no air chamber is constructed, two small doors 
in the gables placed as near to the top of the roof as pos- 
sible will help to ventilate. These doors should be 






Fig 4 J. 



Fig. 



opened during cool nights to let out the warm air, which 
may have accumulated during the day. 

One style of ventilator consists of an opening at the 
ridge pole, running the whole length of the roof. It is. 
covered with a box-shaped cap, open at the extremi- 
ties. (See fig. 48.) 

Another style of ventilator is very simple and effective 
(see fig. 43 and 44). It consists of 4 boards out of which a 
U shaped piece is cut. These boards are nailed together, 
and, a roof shaped cover, projecting at least 3 inches, is 
fixedatthe top. Four pieces of wood 2x3 inches, having 
the underneath beveled, are nailed to the sides of this 



103 

ventilator. This gives it a better shape, and increase 
the current. 

The roof of the ventilator, should extend well over 
the under piece to prevent the rain from entering. 

The size of box ventilators should be made in propor- 
tion to the length and breadth of the building. The 
smaller the ice-house the larger the ventilator should 
proportionately be. 

For an ice house 10 x 10 ft., the ventilator should be 
4 square inches to the square foot. Thus, it should 
have a surface of 20 x 20 inches. 

For an ice house of 20 x 20 feet, the ventilator should 
be 3J square inches to the square foot. This would give 
a ventilator of 36 x 36 inches. 

For an ice house 50 x 60 the ventilator should be 1J 
square inches to the square foot of surface. This would 
give a ventilator of about 36 x 120 inches. 

If a square box ventilator is used the sides should 
be of lattice, like window blinds. 

A LOFT FLOOR. 

In good ice houses, a loft floor is generally made. It 
is more necessary in small ice houses then in large ones. 

This floor should be covered with saw dust,hay or straw 
to the depth of from 10 to 12 inches. 

If the house is to be frequently opened, lengthwise, 
along the middle of the floor, an opening should be left 
for ventilation. Its extremities should be about 2 J feet 
from the gables. The width will depend on the width 
of the ice house. It is a safe rule to allow 3 inches for 
every foot in the width of the building. 

For instance an ice house 12 x 10 feet inside measure, 
would have an opening 3 feet wide. Lengthwise on 



109 

each side of the opening is fixed, with good stout well 
varnished hinges, a trap. When one of these traps is clo- 
sed, one half of the opening is covered. "When the two are 
closed, the whole is covered. 

To the upper side of these traps, is fastened a stout 
rope, which is passed through a short piece of tube (1) 
running through the floor, for that purpose. By this 




Fig. 45. — Ice house and dairy.— MM, Openings for filing the house 
B, Ice box. C, Shaft. F, Entrance. 

means the trap can be raised or lowered at will from 
below. Thus any desired degree of ventilation is ob- 
tained. 

At the back of these traps, there should be fixed to the 
floor a piece of wood, sufficiently high to keep the trap 
in such a position, that it will close by its own weight, 
when the rope is loosened. 

(1) A tube is used to prevent the dunnage from falling through the floor. 



110 



If the house is not to be opened frequently, or in small 
ice houses, a small box ventilator larger at the top then 
at the bottom is sufficient, It should be made to project 
5 or 6 inches above the loft floor and be provided with 
a cover. 




1XCB : LLUXL 



Where there is a double roof as in fig. 48 the air current 
from the air chamber, instead of going out under the 
eaves, should find its way between the double roof into 
the ventilator at the to . 



Ill 

In the case of a single roof, the air from the draught 
chamber should go out under the eaves. 

In fig. 45 we have a loft floor differently constructed. 
In this case it is above the eaves, and offers more store 
room. It is laid on the collar beams. That part of the roof 
which extends from the eaves to the collar beam is pro- 
vided with an outside shell filled with dunnage. The 
space filled with saw-dust, is of the same thickness as 
the walls. In the centre of the loft floor is an opening 
for ventilation. (See fig. 45.) 

THE DIVISION OF ICE H >USES. 

Large ice houses should be divided into two or four 
compartments according to the size (see fig. 46.) These di- 
visions offer the double advantage of preventing draughts 
of warm air from spreading all over the house, and also 
of removing the insolating material from a section when 
necessary. 

A house 50 feet long should be divided into two sec- 
tions, and 100 feet long into four sections. The division 
wall should be double and filled with sawdust. 

OPENINGS. 

Openings in the building for the deposit and removal 
of ice should be as few as possible. Too many of them 
weaken the structure whilst they afford additional faci- 
lities for the entrance of warm air and moisture. 

Large houses. 

In large ice houses one opening 4 feet wide, extending 
from the top to the bottom of the building should be 
made. This should be arranged so as to open in sections, 



112 



oommencing at the top. The smaller these sections, the 
less the waste of iee. According as the house is filled, 
these sections which are like the wall, double, are filled 
in with saw dust. 

Small houses. 

For small houses an op ming, the top of which should 
be on a level with the loft floor, and the bottom *s far as 




e house with outside porch. — G, Ice house. F. Porch. 



possible from the ground should be made. (See fig. 47.) 
It should be provided with double doors. When the 
ice house is not very high, a good porch should be cons- 
tructed. (See F, fig. 47. and D, fig. 51.) 

Thus with the construction of a porch as shown in 
fig. 47 and 51, it is necessary to open three doors before 
entering the ice house. The first one is fixed on the 
inner edge of the opening made in the wall of the ice 
house. The second is hinged on the outer edge of the 
same opening. B >th of these doors open outwards. The 
third one closes the porch. 



113 



d5 



i. 

& 
& 

5" 

CO 

p. 




114 

ICE HOUSES WITH INCLINED PLANED ELEVATOKS. 

On page 113 we give a cut of an ice house, with in- 
clined plane elevator. 

A represents the unfilled space of the outside wall ; B the filled space 
of the inside wall ; C the covering on ihe loft floor ; D the main rafter on 
which the double roof boarding is placed; E the floor of the ice house; 
F she embankment of dirt around the sill of the house, one foot above the 
level, to exclude air; G outside sheating of lap boards (part way up, show- 
ing the middle boarding P) ; H shingle roof; I Ventilator running the 
length of the peak of the roof, with opening ; K stone foundation ; L a 
filling of three inches of charcoal or sawdust under the floor; M plates 
placed edgewise on the outside upright to allow the air to pass freely from 
the bottom of the outside wall of house to the ventilator at peak of the roof, 
and give additional strength : O openings between each upright to admit 
cool air at bottom and drive out the warm ; P middle^sheating of grooved 
or worked boards ; R open end, showing inside sheathing ; S doorway 
boarded up ; U raised roof at. eaves by purlines placed on rafters; T pur- 
lines placed on rafters ; W projection of roof, to prevent rain beating against 
sides of house. Arrows show the current of air passing from openings 
at the bottom through unfilled space A to ventilator at peak of roof. (I) 

We give below a description with cut of the ice house, 
of Mr. W. G-. Walton of Hamilton, which is one of the 
best in the Dominion. 

It stands at the water edge of Burlington bay, near 
G-. T, R. Depot in the city of Hamilton, with siding from 
main line of G-. T. R., for shipping purposes. 

It is 120 x 100 x 41 ft. high and has a storing capa 
city of about 12,000 tons. It is divided into four com- 
partments, and provided with a steam elevator and gal- 
leries, extending the whole length and height outside of 
the building. 

The elevator is driven by a 12 horse power engine. 

For filling this house a field of from J to j of a mile 
square extending from the shore in deep, clear water is 
at hand. The ice is plowed into blocks 22 x 30 inches 

(l) From the Ice Journal, Philadelphia 



115 



and towed down to the elevator by horses in large rafts 
of 500 to 1000 blocks each, through a channel cut in the 
ice. It is then broken off, in single blocks, caught and 
carried up by the elevator. 




The elevator, galleries, and skids are so arranged that 
the ice is elevated to any gallery desired, and distributed 
to any room, and to any part of each room, without 
being handled until it is placed in position by the men 



116 

Cars can be loaded directly from the ice field, by the 
elevator and galleries, Thus from one to two hundred 
tons of ice per hour, ran be stored, or loaded ready to 
ship when desired. The house is also provided with 
of automatic gigs for lowering the ice into cars 
or wagons. (1) 

LINED FLAXES. ELEVATORS, SKIDS, 
AND HOISTING TONGS. 

ELEVATORS. 

The rule is to use inclined planes with elevati 
fig. 48 and 49) for filling, whenever the storage cap 

sds 2000 tons. The planes can be mad.' to suit the 
capacity filled, and to be run by ho 

power. The former is often resorted to in smaller h< 

Tally in cold climates, where there is ample 
for harvesting. 

The i"i o fall is to have the base 50% mon 

the height. If th< of the 

would be T from the house, and by running it 5 

feet into the water, the required fall would be given 
and ample water to float the ice to the chain. By this 
means, several hundred tons of ice can be lifted 30 f« 
an hour. 

SKIDS. 

Le mon of large experience use for handling ice in 
large ice houses, specially constructed skids or runs, for 
moving ice during the summer and for loading it on 
us, cars or ships. 

ce house, which we visited and examined 
by Mr. W. G. Walton. 



m 

The skids may run in any direction in the ice house ; 
so that the furthest blocks from the outside opening- 
may be run along the skids as well as those close to it. 
The ice can be lowered in self acting baskets or gigs, 
and emptied on the skids, which are so arranged as to 
reach the bottom of a car or the hold of a ship. By this 
means the ice is moved and loaded by its own weight, 
without any handling. 

This method effects a great saving of time and labor, 
and reduces the breakage of the ice. 

HOISTING- TONGS. 

In smaller ice houses, hoisting tongs fixed to a rope 
and pulley, are used for hoisting and lowering the ice. 
The pulley is strongly fixed over the opening of the ice 
house. 

They can be worked by a horse. 

DAIRY ICE HOUSES. 

For convenience, of late years ice houses have been 
built close against dairies or creameries in order to uti- 
lize them for cold storage. In this case, the building 
should be put up towards the East or South East of the 
dairy, as the morning sun will absorb the dampness of 
the air. 

Ice houses for dairy purposes are constructed on the 
same plan as those already described. The only things 
calling for remark are. 

1st. The manner of entering. 

2d. The using o^' the meltage from the ice. 

3d. The manner of utilizing the ice for cold storage. 



118 




119 



ENTRANCE OF DAIRY ICE HOUSES. 

When ice houses are built close against the dairy 
or creamery, the entrance may he made in the upper 
part, by building in the upper story of the dairy a porch 
joined to a passage opening directly into trie ice house. 
(See fig. 50.) 

It will thus be necessary to open two doors before 
entering the ice house proper. A window in the porch, 




Fig. 51. — Ice house with porch. 

will, when the doors are opened, allow the light to pene- 
trate into the interior. 

"When the ice house is high, it is convenient to build 
directly under the opening, between the wall of the ice 
house, and that of the dairy, a shaft by means of which 
the ice may be thrown into a box, placed to catch it in- 
side the dairy. (See fig. 50.) 

The bottom of the shaft is covered with an iron plate, 
to protect it against the blows of the blocks of ice. The 
shaft is closed by means of a trap door. (See fig. 50.) 

Opposite the shaft, and placed one above the other, 



/ 
ISO 



in the walls of the house, are openings through which 
the ice may be taken out at any height, as the quantity 
diminishes in the ice-house. ( See fig. 50.) 

In smaller ice houses, orice houses completely isolated, 
an outside porch may be built. (See D. C. fig. 51.) 

MELT AGE. 

In the chapter on floors, we have already described 
the method of utilizing the meltage from the ice in the 
dairy, 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF COLD STORE 
ROOMS AND FREEZERS. 

COLD STORE ROOMS. 

There are many methods of constructing cold store 
rooms. We shall describe a few of the best. The in- 
formation here given has been derived from some of the 
largest users of cold storage in Montreal and elsewhere, 
as well as from the best builders and inventors. 

All cold store rooms are built on the same principle. 

The differences are differences of detail. This prin- 
ciple consists in placing the ice overhead, or alonr side 
of the building ; in some cases in placing it both along 
side and overhead. 

Openings are then made either in the ceiling or sides, 
or both, to create an air current. They are arranged in 
such a manner that any warm air, which enters the 
apartment, immediately ascends to the cooling room 
above, where it is cooled and from which it returns in 
the shape of cold air. 

We give below the description of an unpatented cold 
store room. 



121 

The cold store room, for an ordinary size creamery, 
should be from about 12 to 15 feet square, and two stories 
high. The lower chamber should not exceed 7 feet in 
height. The top or ice chamber may be of the 
same length and breadth, but a little higher. In the 
case of a room 12 x 12 it should be about 8 feet high. 
Where economy is not a prime consideration, the ice 
chamber may with advantage be made higher. 

The walls of such a building are like those of an or- 
dinary ice house, but somewhat stronger to stand the 
pressure. 

MEANS OF PRODUCING THE AIR CURRENTS, 

In the ceiling of the cold store room, there should be, at 
right angles with the beams, two openings. "When pos- 
sible these openings should be, one on the side nearest 
to the door, and the other on the opposite side. One of 
these openings is called the hot airflue,the other the cold air 
flue. In our description, the one nearest the door is the 
hoi air f.ue. They should be from 5 to 12 inches wide, 
according to the size of the room, and run the length of 
the building. They should be provided with traps. 

Both these traps should be hinged to the sides of their 
openings farthest from the walls. The one nearest to 
the door opens upward in the flue, the other one down- 
ward into the room, and when open is suspended from 
the ceiling. Along the split between the hinges of this 
latter on the lower side, nail a narrow strip of soft 
leather listing or cloth. This is to prevent the warm air 
Tom ascending between the trap and the ceiling into 
the cold air flue. These traps are used to regulate 
the temperature in the cold store room. They should 
be * provided with cords running through hooks, by 






122 

means of which, they can be closed or opened, as much 
or as little as is necessary. (1) 

It will be easy to understand, how the traps are ar- 
ranged, when it is remembered that to close the one in 
the hot air flue, it is necessary to let go the rope, and to 
close the other it is necessary to pull on the rope. 

The opening nearest to the door is m-.de to allow the 
warm air to ascend. 

On the upper floor, on the inner edge of the warm air 
flue, construct a double wall, with hollow space of 
about 6 inches, which should be filled with saw dust. 
This wall should be carried to within 1 or 9 inches of 
the top of the ice chamber. If the ice is 12 feet high, 
the space may be increased to about a foot. 

Running parallel with the packed wall, lay on 
the floor, at 15 inches apart, a series of stringers 3 in- 
ches thick and of decreasing height. The highest, whi m 
should be 8 inches, is placed along side of the packed 
wall. The lowest, which never should be less than 
3 inches, is placed along the inner side of the cold air 
flue, aud within a foot of the edge. These stringers 
should be firmly fastened to the floor, their upper edge 
should be bevelled so that if a board was laid upon 
them it would form an inclined plane. Fill in the space 
between the stringers with saw-dust. 

Over the stringers lay a flooring of boards. "We now 
have an inclined floor, the highest part ol which is against, 
the warm air flue, and the lowest point of which is near 
the edge of the cold air flue. 

(1) If the cords from Hie traps are arranged, so that they can be carried 
to the middle of store room, the circulation can be increased and the room 
thoroughly ventilated, by seizing these ropes one ineach.hand, and rapidly 
opening and closing the traps in succession. 



123 

Cover this with sheets of zinc, thus producing a wa- 
ter tight floor. The edges of the zinc close to the walls 
should be turned up about 5 inches. The end nearest to 
the cold air ilue should form a spout. From this spout 
a pipe is run to carry off the water. 

Underneath where the sheets of zinc meet, a slat 
1 x 2 inches is placed. The zinc is fastened to this and 
soldered. Upon this zinc floor, lay another series of 
stringers at right angles to the wall, cut in the shape of 
inclined planes ; they should be 3 inches thick and pla- 
ced 15 inches apart. The larger end (which should be 
8 inches high) should be placed farthest from the pack- 
ed wall, the smaller (which should be 3 or 4 inches 
high) touching it. 

Across these, lay 3x4 inch stringers about 3 inches 
apart. On this bed of stringers, pile the ice. 

There is now a vacant space over the cold air flue. 
This space must be arranged so as to allow the ice to be 
piled above, without closing it up completely, and with- 
out allowing the meltage to drop into the store room be- 
low. This is done in the following manner. 

Upon the beams, which have been uncovered by the 
opening made in the floor, place on end, against the 
wall, pieces of wood 3x4 inches and about 14 inches 
high. Resting on the top of these pieces, and also 
on the inclined planes, which come directly over 
the zinc, place on edge pieces of plank 3 inches 
thick 15 inches high at one end and 14f inches at the 
other, and 30 inches long, or of less length according to 
the size of the opening in the floor. 

Cover the top of this frame work with 3 inch planks, 
over which sheathe with zinc ; the edges of this zinc 



124 



should project about 3 inches, so as to allow the meltage 
to drop into the spout formed by the larger zinc. 




Fig. 52. 



(kit No 52 represents a cold store room on another 
plan. In this the floor of the ice chamber and the cei- 
ling 1 of the store room are both inclined. This is an ad- 



125 

vantage. The warm air always seeks the highest part 
of the room. It is therefore evident, that it will gradu- 
ally find its way to the warm air flue. 

On the other hand, the cold air flue is continued to 
within a few feet of the floor of the store room. This 
continuation prevents the formation of a double current 
in the cold air flue, and helps to cause a complete circu- 
lation. By looking at the figure it will be seen that the 
cold air flue is carried up to the ceiling. Openings in 
the side of it allow the cold air to descend. A glance at 
the figure will make clear the position of the inclined 
plane stringers, which are placed at right angles to 
the packed wall, 3 inches apart and serve to form 
a level surface upon which the ice is piled. Without 
this precaution much of the weight of the ice would 
come upon the partition of the cold air flue. 

In building a floor, such as is seen in figure 52, the 
beams should be put in as in an ordinary building. We 
have already described on pages 122 and 123 how the 
slant is obtained. 

When the room intended for cold storage is built 
against the ice house, two openings are made through 
the walls of the latter, one close to the floor, and the 
other close to the ceiling of the store room. By this 
means, cold air is constantly pouring into the store 
room. The openings are provided with sliding covers 
by which the current can be increased or diminished at 
will, thus regulating the temperature. 

When it is desired to build a cold store room withoui 
having the ice house over head, and without making 
openings in the sides of the ice house, proceed in the 
following manner : 

Build the room for cold storage as close as possible to 



126 

tlie ice house. The ice chamber should be considerably 
smaller than the room to be cooled. Of course, the size 
depends on the temperature required in the room. For 
a temperature of about 55° Fahrt, the size of the ice 
chamber should be about r - of the size of the room to 
be cooled, but this ice chamber will have to be filled 
every 10 or 15 days. 

To cool a room 12 x 12, 7 feet high, the ice chamber 
would be a box whose length breadth and height, would 
be 5 feet. It would contain 125 cubic feet of ice. This 
would take about 2 J tons of ice every 10 or 15 days. The 
ice chamber should be settled in the same manner as in 
the store rooms already described. 

The meltage from the ice may be utilized as a cooling 
agent for different purposes. 

Mr Jos Baril. of Montreal, is the patentee of an ex- 
cellent system of cold storage and freezers. He has 
already constructed a large number of these for butchers, 
produce dealers, dairy-men and others. 

In his system the ceiling is sloped as in fig. 52. There 
are two cold air flues situated, one at each end of the 
building, and one hot air flue at one side. The parti- 
lions of the cold air flues are carried down a certain 
distance below the ceiling into the store room. 

The ice chamber is provided with a zinc covered floor 
slightly inclined. At the inner edges of the cold air 
flues, an open frame work runs up to the ceiling. This 
prevents the ice from dropping into these openings, and 
allow.- the air to circulate freely. This system is very 
effective. 

FREEZERS. 

Freezers are constructed in the following manner: 
The room should be low, and the smaller the better. 



121 

The walls should be well built and thick. It should be 
provided with double doors and an ante-room. The 
doors should be provided with weather strips. 

Along" the ceiling*, on at least three sides, make an 
opening. Above this opening, in the ice chamber, fit a 
water tight trough, from the bottom of which, at inter- 
vals, pipes should be run into the chamber below. The 
diameter of these pipes should be equal to that of an 
ordinary stove pipe. The lower ends of these pipe? 
should be conical in form and come close to the floor. 
They should be connected at their lower extremity with 
an outlet pipe, to carry off the melt age from the ice. 
! The greater the degree of refrigeration required, the 
greater should be the number of these pipes, and in 
some cases it is necessary to run a certain number from 
the midie of the ceiling, as well as those w^e have 
already described around the walls. The central ones 
may be, when necessary, much larger and if oval shaped 
are more effective. 

The upper chamber should be as low as possible 
(the lower the better). Into the troughs, which should 
be provided with packed covers, as well as packed 
sides, the ice is thrown, after having been broken quite 
fine and mixed with salt. The quantity of salt is from 
8 to 10 per cent, of the quantity of ice. 

CHEAP ICE HOUSES. 

A family ice house need not be an expensive struc- 
ture. It may be built cheaply, and serve its object 
excellently. A building of 12 feet square and 9 feet 
high is sufficient for the wants of the most exacting 
family. 

It may be a frame building entirely above the surface 



123 

of the ground (better still if supported on posts elevated a 
lew inches, to be certain of good drainage,) built of joists 
2 or 3 inches, with an outer boarding, having inside 
another series of uprights, also boarded, from 6 to 10 
inches removed from the outer shell, and a solid floor of 
plank. Fill the space between the two walls with 
tan bark, saw dust, swamp moss, etc. ; put on a roof of 
good piteii, and the ice house is complete. 

A drain for water should be made from the floor, and 
the pitch of the roof filled with straw, hay or similar 
dry porous material. On the roof should be a ventilator, 
the top defended from the rain. The ice should be 
packed in one solid mass, the sides not reaching the 
inner walls of the building, but allowing a space of 
from 12 to 6 inches all round. 

The top of the ice should be covered with straw, and 
the doors should be like the sides of the building, or 
double doors should be made, one in the outer and the 
other in the inner wall. 

Two workmen, if not practical carpenters, can put up 
such a building in one or at most two days. It will 
prove a useful adjunct to the farm and dairy. It is very 
useful as a refrigerator on a large scale for preserving food. 

It costs but a little to build an ice house, that will 
keep ice the year round, where practical utility only is 
uimed at, and not elegance of structure. 

A writer on this subject, thus tells how he constructed 
an ice house. I set posts in the ground so as to make a 
house 12 feet square (three posts on each side), then I 
boarded it up 8 feet high on the outside. I .hen dug out 
the surface earth 6 inches deep, and filled in with saw 
dust, one foot deep, making it 6 inches above the level 
of the earth. 



129 

I packed the ice carefully, 9 feet square and 6 feet 
high, leaving a space of 18 inches between the ice and 
boards, which I closely packed with sawdust. I placed 
the same thickness of sawdust over the ice. I have a 
board roof over this ice house, the space above the saw 
dust is left open so that the air can circulate through. 
The result is that we have used ice daily and have 
plenty yet. As to the cost, four men with one team cut, 
hauled and packed the ice, and filled in the sawdust in 
less than two days. We had to haul the ice J a mile.(l) 

KEEPINGS ICE IN BAENS, SHEDS OH IN STACKS. 

IN BARNS OR SHEDS. 

Ice will keep in a barn or a shed, when properly pack- 
ed. In the first place skids, small stones and sawdust 
are laid down for foundation and drainage. 

The ice is piled in a bed of snow to prevent the aii 
from reaching it. It is then surrounded and covered 
with 18 inches of well packed sawdust, or three feet 
of hay or straw. 

IN STACKS. 

Construct a pen near a pond, or a stream, where the 
ice is to be gathered. If such a site is not to be had 
choose a convenient spot outside of droppings from roofs, 
always making provision for drainage. 

The pen may be made of rails 12 feet long or of any 
desired length. The larger the pen, the better the ice 
will keep. Lay up two rails upon each of the four sides, 
make the bottom level, and cover it a foot or more with 
sawdust, tan or straw etc. 

(1) Youman's Dictionary of every-day wants. 

9 



130 

Cut tho cakes of ice in the usual manner and pack 
them closely, filling the interstices with pounded 
ice. Pack the outside with a foot of straw, saw-dust or 
other material, and put up the fence as the pile rises. 
The pile can be conveniently made from 8 to 12 feet 
high. 

Cover the ice with at least 18 inches of saw-dust, or 
two feet of straw or hay trodden down closely, make a 
roof of boards, or slabs, slanting to the North, sufficiently 
steep to shed water, and fasten with a few nails. 

AN ICE BOX. 

In connection with such a start, a cheap ice box 
made with double sides, and packed with sawdust 
will be wanted. The ice chamber should be about 
2 feet long, 2 feet deep and 18 inches wide. This 
will hold a single cake of ice weighing one hundred 
pounds, cr more and leave room on the top for cold sto- 
rage. 

If the stack is not disturbed more than once or twice 
a week, it will probably supply the family through the 
summer with an abundance of ice. 

As the stack diminishes, care must be taken to see 
that it is kept closely packed. 

THE OPENING OF AN ICE FIELD. 

FOR LARGE ICE HOUSES. 

On running water, cutting a hole in the ice and dump- 
ing the snow into it, is a very good plan. 

On still, shallow water it is impracticable as the hole 
will soon fill up with the sinking of the snow to the bottom 
If banked up on the field it may, in some places, sink 
the ice, and let the water on 



131 



When the snow is loose, it can often be got rid of, by 
running a V scraper or snow plough, thus throwing the 
snow into the water. But this method is only available, 
where there is only one elevator to feed. In very large ice 
houses it is too slow. 

A good way, to dispose of this greatest of nuisances, is 
to run it ashore in scoops made for this purpose. 



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S 


3 


5 


7 










•* 


2 


4 


6 




J 




h / 


\a i 


i—1 . 


a, Jy 



Fig. 53. — Tee field marked in blocks. 



The field is marked with very ingenious ice markers 
driven by horses. It is then furrowed to a certain depth? 
with specially constructed ice cutters called ploughs,also 
driven by horses. 



FOR SMALL ICE HOUSES. 



Having chosen a place where the ice is clear and 
sound clear off the snow. Then with a plank, 12 feet 
long and 10 inches wide, to serve as a ruler and a chisel^ 
mark off the field something like a checker board. Ma- 
king the blocks 20 inches long, by 40 wide. (See fig. 53.) 
Enough should be marked at a time for a day's work. 

Having made a hole in a corner with an axe, suffi- 
ciently large to pass a saw, saw one block, push it 



STOEEXG OF SNOW. 

Tn places where ice cannot be conveniently had, snow 
ma\ be stored, and used as a cooling agent, with ne 
as much advantage as ice. 

A cubic loot of snow well packed weig] 
is lbs. 

The softest and heaviest snow contains 4 n 
cooling power than light dry snow. It must. th< r- I 
gathered when soft and wet, in layers of 4 or 5 inches 
in thickness, and tramped with the feet, or othei 

Tramping with the feet is about 
a means of pressing as any. One man can in a <3 
work press about 700 cubic feet. Snow keeps jus 
well as ice, 

Cover well with straw 7 , hay, or rushes as in the 
of ice. Do not use saw-dust for snow. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON ICE HOE 

1st. The ground phould.be banked up round the sic! 
the houses (about 18 inches high,) that the water iron 
inav run off, and that the air may not pass uj 
the walls of the house. (Sec fig. 18.) 

2d. A good coat oi lime (whitewash) should be given 
to the walls and roof. (1) 

(1) The folio v 
It is a 
Slack i .t I iter, keepii 

in warm v 

- 
wai«T. M , an I let it si 

Keep i 

put it on a? hot as villi painters or whitewash br 



185 

3d. See that the ice is kept air tight as much as pos- 
sible and to effect this, close up any chinks or crannies 
in the walls or floor, and keep the covering on the ice 
and floor of the loft. 

4th, If the house is not to be opened until the end of ""he 
season, dispense with ventilation in the ice chamber 
closing up the aperture in the loft floor, and keep 
room close. 

5th. If the house is opened frequently, supply 
ice chamber with ventilation, to carry off the moisture 
produced by the warm air admitted, when it is opened. 

6th. Gro over the house carefully from time to time, and 
see that every thing is right inside, and check anything 
that may be amiss. 



y 

e 
tne 



The End. 



LATEST IMPROVED 




Any appliance which improves the quality and quantity of the VERY 
important product of our country, ' CHEESE," should be adopted by all 
who wish to progress and keep pace with this age of ad ancement. 

The following articles for use in the handling oi milk by the Dairyman 
and manufacture of Cheese by the Factoryman, are offered to the Public 
as an advance on all previous articles used for the purpose, and a trial of 
same is solicited. 



MACPHERSON'S PATENT MILK COOLER, ORATOR 
AND STRAINER 

Will reduce the temperature of FRESH WARM milk twenty to forly 
degrees — thoroughly strain — and at the same time thoroughly air the 
milk, which is one of the most important factors for preserving the milk 
sweet and pure for delivery at the Cheese Factory or to families in tne 
city, and at the same time put the milk into the milk cjn. This is all 
done by one operation, without labour or attention. 

City milkmen are specially asked to give it a trial. 



MACPHERSON'S PATENT CURD MILL. 

A machine taking the precedence of all others, LIGHT RUNNING-. 
RAPIDITY AND QUALITY OF WORK DONE, all commends itself 
for approval by practical Cheese Makers. 



MACPHERSON'S PATENT CURD AND MILK STIRRER 

A very valuable implement used in the manufacture of cheese for 
stirring the milk in the cheese vat and curd while heating. Will 
increase the quantity of curd from o e to three per cent., and give a 
much better quality. A saving of hundreds of dollars has been effected 
by its use in one factory. 

A trial of these articles is solicited, and a sample machine will 
be sent (on trial) to any part of the country by applying to 

D. M. MACPHERSON, 

Proprietor of Allan Grove Cheese Combination* 
LANCASTER, ONTARIO. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



—A— 

PAGES 

Ahlborn Milk Heater , 42 

Analysis of the Butter Milk 60 

Analysis of the Butter 60 

Analysis of the Skim Milk 60 

Advantages of the Shallow P 1 .n System , 63 

" Deep Setting 65 

" Deep Setting in Ice 66 

" the Cream Gathering System 69 

« Churning the Whole-Milk 7l 

" the Centrifugal System , 7[ 

Advice to intending purchasers of Centrifugal Milk Separators 79 

— B— 

Burmeinsler & Wain Milk Separator 24 

" " " Capacity and Speed 25 

" ' " Controlling Funnel 2o 

" " " Pipe for Lilting Fluid 27 

" " " How it Works 27 

" " " Where Made , 29 

Best Material for an Ice-House 103 

Bottom of an Ice-House 103 

Cream , , 5 

Cans (Deep) 7 

Can (the Cooly) , 14 

Creamers of Different Description 13 

" " " The Hardin 13-14 

The Cooly 15 

" '* ." The Ferguson Bureau 15 

" " " The Little Gem 15-16 

tf " " TheHome 17 

" " TheKellog., 16 

Cream Gathering System (The) 18 

Cream Gathering or Fairlamb can 18 

Cream Cooler (Fjord's) 44 

Centrifugal force (Definition of the) 21 

Controlling Funnel (Fjords.) 26 

Controller for Testing Milk (Fjord's) 46 



138 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

-C- 

PAGES. 

Comparison of the Cooly with oilier Systems 49-50 

Comparison of the Centrifugal with other Systems 51 

Concluding remarks on Ihe different Systems 63 

Cabinet Creamers. Vats, Pans etc 13-69 

Centrifugal Milk Separators 23-74 

" " " Advice to those intending to buy 79 

" » " Points of a good 79 

" " » Defects of 80 

« « " Power required to drive 80 

« " " Things to be remembered in using 82 

" « « Value of different 83 

Capacity of Milk Separators 84 

Cold Milk (how to skim) 93 

Construction of Ice-Houses 99 

Construction of cold Store Rooms and Freezers 120 

Cutting of Ice (The) 131 

Cost of Cutting and Storing Ice 133 

— D- 

Deep Cans 

" (Oval Shaped) 8-9 

« " (Round Shaped) 8-9 

Different ways of using the Natural Method 21 

Description of Centrifugal Milk Separators.... 23 

Dairy experts of Denmark 49 

Deep Setting in Water at 50° Fahrt 65 

" " (Importance of using Ice) 65 

" « (How to use) 67 

Disadvantages of the Shallow Pan System 63 

« « Deep Setting 67 

" " the Cream-gathering System 69 

" " the Churning of whole Milk 71 

11 " the Centrifugal System 73 

Defects of Milk Separators 80 

Division of Ice-Houses HI 

Dairy Ice-Houses H? 

(Entrance of) 119 

Dunnage or Isolating Material 133 

-E— 

Elevators for Ice-Houses 116 

Entrance of Dairy Ice-Houses H9 

Effects of the heating of milk on the quality of the Butter. 92-93 

— F- 

Ferguson Bureau Creamer 

Fairlamb Milk Can '& 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 139 

— F- 

PAGES. 

Fesca Milk Separator 35-36 

Fjord's Controlling Funnel... 26 

Fjord's Cream Cooler * # 44 

Fjord's Controller for Testing Milk , " 45 

Foundation of an Ice-House 104 

Floor of an Ice-House ' ,04 

« (a tight) [o4 

" (aloft, 108 

Freezers (the construction ofi I2g 

Flues (cold and hot air) ,....121-124 

-G- 

General Remarks on Ice-Houses 134 

- H— 

Heavy Milk. Its causes 5 

How to make and where to buy Milk Vessels 8-7 

How to work the Burmeinster & Wain Separator 2 7-28 

" " « '" DeLaval Separator 32 

Henrich Petersen Shale Machine (The) 38 

Herman Pape « „ 40 

How to use the Ahlborn Milk Heater 42- 'i3 

How to use Fjord's Controller for testing Milk 47 

" " " the Shallow Pans..., , , 64 

" " " the Deep setting Method 67 

How to work the Cream Gathering System 70 

How to churn the whole Milk 71 

How to regulate the Speed and inflow... 75 

How to ascertain the capacity of "a Centrifugal Milk Separator, 

when running at different Speed , ., 75 

How much Cream should be left in the Skim Milk when using a 

Centrifugal Milk Separator 83 

How to Skim hot Milk 92 

How to Skim cold Milk , 93 

Hoisting Tongs 117 

How to put up the walls of large and small Ice-Houses 105-106 

-B- 

Ice Breakers 19 

" •• (TheCreasey) 19-20 

Ice 10 and 34 hours , 21-51 

Indicator diagram 58 

Inflow and Speed 74-82 

Inflow (Its influence on the quantity of fat left in the Skim Milk).. ..86-87 
Importance of Speed 77 



140 TABLE OF CONTEiMo. 



PAGES 

Ice Houses and their construction 99 

" " General Principles 99 

(Size of) 99 

" " Site and drainage of 102 

" Best material for 103 

The bottom of 103 

" " Foundations of 104 

" " Flooring of 104 

» Roof of 107 

" Yentilatorsof 107 

<• " (Size of) 108 

" «• Loft Floors of 108 

" " Division of Ill 

" " Openings of Ill 

" " With inclined planed elevators 113-114-115 

" <• For the Dairy 117 

(Cheap) :. 127 

" •• General Remarks on 134 

Inclined planed elevators 116 

Ice kept in Barns, Sheds or Stacks 129 

Ice-Box 130 

Ice-Field (the opening of an) 130 

Ice (the cutting of) 13! 

Ice (the storing of) 132 

Ice (quantity required to set the milk 100 

Isolating Material 133 

— K— 

Kellog Milk Pan (The) , 18 



Little Gem Creamer 15-16 

Laval Milk Separator (De) 30 

Lefeldt Milk Separator ...33-34-35 

Loss of butter from heavy Milk, set in deep cans 57 

Loss of butter from cooled or transported Milk 57 

Milk 5 

Milk, heavv, its causes 5 

Milk. Whole 5 

" When it should beset 6-21 

" Vessels 7 

" Vessels (how made) 8 

' Pan. The Marquis 17 

The Kellog 16 

<' « ; The Fairlamb 18 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 141 



Milk Heater (Ahlborn's) 42-43 

" Separators (Centrifugal), 23-74 

The Burmeinster & Wain 24-25 

De Laval 30-31 

The Lefeldt 33-34-35 

The Fesca 35-36 

TheNakskov 36-37 

TheHenrich Petersen Shale Machine, 38-39-40 

The Herman Pape Machine 40-41 

Methods of skimming Milk 6 

Methods, the Natural used in different ways 21 

Mechanical process of skimming Milk (The) 21 

Means of producing the Air currents 121 



Nakskov Milk Separator 36-37 

— o— 

Openings of Ice-Houses 11 1 

— P— 

Proportion of Butier fat in whole Milk 6 

Pipes for lifting fluid , 25-27 

Points of a good Centrifugal Separator 79 

Power required to drive Milk Separators 80 

Power required to drive the Burmeinster & Wain & De Laval Milk 

Separators 88 



Requisites of the Natural Method , 7 

Refrigerating tanks (directions for making) 10 

Results of Prof. Fjord's Experiments on the Skimming of Milk 53-59 

Remarks on the different Systems 63 

Remarks on the use of Animal power required in running Centrifugal 

Milk Separators 81 

Roof of an lce-House 107 

Remarks on Ice-Houses = 134 

-s— 

Skimming (Different Methods of) 6 

" The natural process 6 

" The First and Last Contents of the Burmeinster & Wain 

Milk Separator 28-29 

Shallow pans 7-63 






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